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Materials Testing

MATERIALPRÜFUNG MATERIALS – COMPONENTS – TECHNOLOGY – APPLICATION

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Language: English

First published: January 1, 1959

Publication Frequency: 12 issues per year

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Materials Testing is a SCI-listed English language journal dealing with all aspects of material and component testing with a special focus on transfer between laboratory research into industrial application. The journal provides first-hand information on non-destructive, destructive, optical, physical and chemical test procedures. It contains exclusive articles which are peer-reviewed applying respectively high international quality criterions.
All articles are subject to thorough, independent peer review.

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Photoactive mechanism of TiO₂ catalytic system in scavenging of hydroxyl radical with alcohols as scavengers

March 20, 2026

Xiaojun Zhao, Xiayi Wang, Zixian Feng, Yangyang Chen, Yuan Gao

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In photocatalytic oxidation, the photocatalytic properties of photocatalysts are commonly attributed to hydroxyl radicals (·OH), superoxide radicals (·O 2 − ), and hole radicals (h + ). In general, evaluating radical activity is crucial for studying the photocatalytic mechanism. Previous studies have reported that alcohols are commonly used to characterise the magnitude of hydroxyl radical activity. However, this work found that alcohols as OH scavengers exhibited an inhibiting effect on titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) photocatalytic systems at lower concentrations, whilst an opposite effect at higher concentrations, which was diverged significantly from the findings reported. This study provided a detailed investigation of the effect of alcohols concentration on the photocatalytic process. The results show that the catalytic process could be facilitated by introducing high concentrations of alcohols to increase the existence time of O 2 − and h + . Finally, further studies confirmed that oxidative dehydrogenation is an important pathway for alcohols to act as OH scavengers. The photoactive mechanism was proposed based on the influence of alcohols concentration on the photocatalytic process.
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Fatigue life prediction of FSW lap joints 6061/2A12 dissimilar aluminum alloy

March 20, 2026

Hengyuan Dai, Ruijie Wang, Guoshou Liu, Linhuan Zhang

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This study investigated the fatigue behavior of friction stir-welded 6061/2A12 dissimilar aluminum joints with different lap configurations. Constant-amplitude fatigue tests were performed, followed by metallographic observation of the weld cross-sections. Fatigue life was predicted using finite element models based on the notch stress approach, fracture mechanics method, and hot-spot stress method, respectively. Results showed that all fatigue failures originated from the hook defect on the advancing side, which is correlated with the location of maximum stress and strain concentration identified by finite element method. The hook defect was identified as the dominant factor controlling fatigue life. All three prediction methods provided results within a scatter band of three factors compared to experimental data. For the hot-spot stress method, applying twice the IIW-recommended maximum principal stress could yield more accurate prediction results.
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Effect of benzoylation surface treatment on the physical, mechanical and thermal properties of aloe vera fiber reinforced polyester composites

March 20, 2026

Kamatchi Thirupathi, Karthick Rasu, Meby Selvaraj Rajachandrasekaran, Sudarsan Deenadayalan

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The growing demand for sustainable materials has driven interest in natural fiber-reinforced composites. Aloe vera fiber is biodegradable and abundant but suffers from poor adhesion with polymer matrices, limiting its structural use. This study aimed to enhance the interfacial bonding of aloe vera fiber-reinforced polyester composites through chemical surface modifications. Fibers were subjected to alkali treatment using sodium hydroxide and subsequently benzoylated with benzoyl chloride at concentrations of 5, 10, 15, and 20 %. The composites were evaluated for hardness, tensile, flexural, impact, and shear strengths, along with water absorption and thermal conductivity. Results showed that alkali treatment improved adhesion and reduced moisture uptake, while benzoylation further enhanced mechanical performance. The AVF-B20 composite exhibited superior properties, including a hardness of 66.98, impact strength of 6.62 J, tensile strength of 67.30 MPa, tensile modulus of 4.9 GPa, flexural strength of 88.68 MPa, flexural modulus of 4.05 GPa, shear strength of 13.96 MPa, and the lowest water absorption of 3.62 percent. A slight rise in thermal conductivity was observed with increasing benzoylation levels. Overall, combined alkali and benzoylation treatments effectively improved the strength, durability, and dimensional stability of Aloe Vera fiber composites, making them suitable for sustainable engineering applications.
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Corrosion behavior of AISI 1045 carbon steel in simulated marine, acidic, and agricultural environments

March 19, 2026

Meltem Eryildiz, Yasemin Bayhan

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This study investigates the corrosion behavior of AISI 1045 medium-carbon steel under three simulated corrosive environments: marine (NaCl), acidic (H 2 SO 4 ), and agricultural (NH 4 Cl). Tensile specimens were exposed for varying durations (1 and 5 days) and evaluated through corrosion rate measurements, surface hardness testing, tensile testing, and surface/fracture morphology analysis. The highest corrosion rate (7.41 mm·a −1 ) was recorded after 1 day of exposure to H 2 SO 4 which rapidly deteriorated mechanical properties due to aggressive acid attack and hydrogen-induced embrittlement. In contrast, NaCl exposure caused significant localized corrosion and a pronounced reduction in hardness (∼70 %), while NH 4 Cl exposure resulted in moderate and more uniform degradation. Tensile strength, elastic modulus, and ductility declined in all corroded specimens, correlating closely with fracture morphology and surface deterioration. These findings highlight the vulnerability of AISI 1045 steel to diverse environmental conditions and emphasize the need for protective strategies in service applications.
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Mechanical properties of NBR nanocomposites reinforced with graphene, CNTs and carbon black

March 19, 2026

Rajasekar Rathanasamy, Mogana Priya Chinnasamy, Sudarsan Kamaraj, Premkumar Gandhinathan, Naresh Senthilkumar

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The work involves formulating nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) having improved mechanical and chemical properties, by incorporating nanomaterials, such as COOH graphene, OH graphene, COOH graphene + CNT and OH graphene + CNT, in addition to carbon black. NBR is widely used in the automotive, aerospace and petroleum industries because it has outstanding resistance to oil, fuel and chemicals. However, to be eligible for higher level applications, NBR must also have good tensile strength, tear resistance, hardness and oil-swelling resistance. The nanocomposite samples were compounded by two-roll mill and vulcanized under optimum conditions. The performance of the composites was tested by using characterization methods such as tensile, elongation, tear, hardness, compression set and oil swelling tests. The FESEM morphological study established nanomaterial uniform dispersion, leading to improved mechanical properties. The results show that the developed nanocomposites possess better strength, durability and deformation resistance, which render them appropriate for high-performance applications.
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Novel method to fabricate aluminum nitride coatings on 2024-T3 aluminum alloy by high-frequency impact electrospark treatment

March 9, 2026

Yongxin Lu, Wenya Li, Dafeng Wang

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This study proposes a novel high-frequency impact electrospark treatment (HFIET) method to fabricate Al/AlN composite layers on 2024-T3 aluminum alloy substrates. The HFIET process utilized nitrogen as both the shielding gas and reactive nitrogen source for in situ synthesis of AlN, with precisely controlled discharge parameters to minimize substrate thermal damage. Analysis revealed a dense Al/AlN composite layer with near-stoichiometric composition (Al:N atomic ratio ≈ 1:1), confirmed by EDS and XRD. The microhardness profile exhibited a gradient distribution, decreasing from 450 HV at the surface to the substrate hardness (∼120 HV), attributed to the gradual reduction in AlN volume fraction from the top layer to the interior. Tensile tests demonstrated simultaneous improvements in ultimate tensile strength (∼10 % increase) and elongation (∼30 % increase) compared to untreated 2024-T3 alloy, indicating enhanced strength-ductility synergy. Corrosion resistance was significantly enhanced, and the Al/AlN layer acts as an effective barrier against corrosive media infiltration, suppressing pitting initiation at the coating–substrate interface.
Open Access
Effect of thermal induction cycling on wear and corrosion performance of a X90CrMoV18 (440B) martensitic stainless steel

March 5, 2026

Gökhan Eyici, Nurşen Saklakoğlu, Nilay Çömez, Can Çivi

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Induction heat treatment is a promising alternative to conventional furnace-based processes for martensitic stainless steels due to its fast-processing capability and lower energy demand. In this study, induction heating combined with thermal cyclic treatment was applied to improve the microstructural homogeneity and mechanical performance of the material. The results showed a refined and stable microstructure, reduced wear loss, improved intergranular corrosion resistance, and a more uniform hardness distribution. These improvements were supported by statistical reliability analyses of hardness measurements.
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Effect of mixing mechanism on the wear behavior of pan-type concrete mixer blades

February 27, 2026

Jaber Salamat, Bülent Genç, Serdar Osman Yılmaz

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A total of 320,000 granular particles with a radius of 6 mm were injected into the mixer tank to evaluate the mixing performance of the pan-type concrete mixer and the wear behavior on the mixing blades. Based on the mixing mechanism, the discrete element method was used to numerically calculate the mixing performance in a pan-type concrete mixer and to determine the erosive wear rate on the scraper blades. The Finnie model was used in open-source DEM particle simulation software (LIGGGHTS) for 60 s, representing the duration of concrete production during a single mixing cycle, for wear that could be caused by erosive-abrasive particles. The mixing mechanism was evaluated based on the homogeneity of granular particles and the sweeping action of the mixer’s interior by the rotating mixing blades. The mixing of granular particles was performed using particle interaction models by applying the Hertz–Mindlin contact law, constant directional torque, and simplified Johnson–Kendall–Roberts (SJKR) models. All mixing blades showed a rapid increase in wear at the beginning of the mixing process, followed by a steady change in wear. Erosive wear intensity increased, particularly on the outer and lower edges of the mixing blades.
Open Access
Tribological and mechanical characteristics of aluminum–graphene oxide composites synthesized by the ECAS method

February 25, 2026

Kasim Safa Yakacak, Erhan Duru, Mehmet Uysal, Hatem Akbulut, Serdar Aslan

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In this study, aluminum–graphene oxide composite materials were fabricated via the powder metallurgy (PM) method. Graphene oxide (GO), synthesized using a modified Hummers method, was coated with a Ni–P layer through the electroless plating technique to establish a uniform and stable interface. Composite powders were prepared by mixing pure aluminum powders with Ni–P–coated GO powders in ethanol using an ultrasonic homogenizer. Pure aluminum and aluminum powders containing 0.5 wt.%, 1 wt.%, and 2 wt.% GO were sintered under pressure using current-assisted electrical sintering (ECAS) technique. Crystalline and microstructures of the composites were analyzed using XRD and FESEM, while Raman spectroscopy was used to evaluate structural defects in the GO sheets. Pure aluminum and GO-reinforced composites were evaluated for microhardness, tensile strength, and wear resistance. Highest hardness (60 HV) was found in the composite with 1 wt.% GO, which also showed the lowest friction coefficient and wear rate, along with highest yield and tensile strength. Mechanical enhancement arises from the combined effect of load transfer to graphene oxide and dispersion strengthening from its uniform distribution. GO addition also refines aluminum grain structure, boosting grain boundary strengthening. Consequently, 1 wt.% GO significantly improves the strength and wear resistance of aluminum composites.
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Influence of machining parameters on metal removal rate and surface roughness of stir casted AA8011 hybrid metal matrix composite

February 25, 2026

Jones Praveen Jesuraj, Kumaravel Arumugam, Siddharthan Balakrishnan

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The properties of AA8011 alloy include formability and high corrosion resistance of the alloy which has made it useful in a variety of applications. It is not however suitable in critical applications because it has low load-carrying properties compared to other aluminum alloys. In an attempt to increase the load-carrying capacity, AA8011 alloy is strengthened using titanium oxide and aluminum silicate. This composite is prepared with the help of the stir casting process. The stir-cast AA8011 containing 6 wt.% of Al 2 SiO 5 and 9 wt.% of TiO 2 enhanced its strength to its greatest extent in this investigation. A CNC turning process was also used to further machine the cast aluminum alloy to determine the rate of removal of the metal and surface roughness of the metal matrix composite. Response surface is a statistical method that was applied to optimize the parameters of the process. Surface roughness of 1.162 μm and metal removal rate of 18.024 mm 3  min −1 were achieved with a depth of cut of 0.7 mm, a feed rate of 0.08 mm min −1 and a cutting velocity of 150 m min −1 . The depth of cut, the feed rate, and the machining velocity are the main affecting process parameters as the results of the ANOVA test indicate.
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Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of LSM|YSZ|LSM symmetric cells with varying geometric conditions

February 25, 2026

Taeheun Lim, Kanghee Jo, Jaekwang Lee, Yong-Nam Kim, Heesoo Lee

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Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a powerful tool for understanding the oxygen reduction reaction in solid oxide fuel cell cathodes. The cathodic impedance response is strongly affected by experimental variables such as geometric and thermal conditions. The impedance behavior of La 0.8 Sr 0.2 MnO 3-δ (LSM)|yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ)|LSM symmetric cells was investigated with electrode diameter and thickness, electrolyte thickness, and reference electrode (RE) configuration. When the electrode diameter increased from 5 mm to 15 mm, the average polarization resistance changed from 12.8056 to 12.6822 Ω cm 2 , while the standard deviation decreased from 0.3877 to 0.1734, suggesting that electrode area mismatch may have influenced the measurement consistency. For the electrode thickness, the most stable impedance response was observed at 20 μm (average: 12.6822 Ω cm 2 ; standard deviation: 0.1734), compared to 30 μm (average: 15.4541 Ω cm 2 ; standard deviation: 1.6038) and 10 μm (average: 14.3421 Ω cm 2 ; standard deviation: 0.7406). These variations are attributed to a decrease in open porosity at higher thickness and structural discontinuity or poor interfacial adhesion at lower thickness. Electrolyte thickness and RE configuration also affected the impedance behavior. The validity of the impedance measurements was confirmed through interlaboratory testing (ILT) with the optimized conditions.
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Evaluation of 50R steel and carbon epoxy woven FGM composites for monoleaf springs

February 23, 2026

Hassan S. Hedia, Hassan M. Attar, Mohammed H. Hedia, Mona A. Soliman

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Functionally graded materials (FGMs) offer a promising approach to enhancing the performance of monoleaf springs by enabling tailored material properties across the component, leading to improved stress distribution, increased strain energy capacity, and optimized strength-to-weight ratios, particularly in vehicle suspension systems where weight reduction is crucial for fuel efficiency and overall performance. The traditional materials like steel are being replaced with composites to achieve significant weight savings, FGMs provide an added advantage by tailoring material properties across the spring’s geometry. This study presents the design and finite element analysis (FEA) of a monoleaf spring composed of an FGM composite that combines carbon epoxy woven prepreg and 50R steel. The analysis evaluates the spatial distribution of von Mises stress and strain energy across the spring thickness using three grading functions: power-law (P-FGM), symmetric power-law (S-P-FGM), and sigmoid (S-FGM). The effect of the power-law exponent k (ranging from 0 to 10) on stress distribution and energy storage was investigated. Results show that increasing k enhances strain energy capacity, with k = 10 yielding the highest energy absorption and acceptance of margin of safety (MOS). Among the models, P-FGM and S-P-FGM outperform S-FGM in terms of structural efficiency and safety. The optimal configuration is an FGM spring with a power-law exponent of k = 10, offering superior strain energy capacity, strength, and reliability, making it well-suited for high-performance applications.
Open Access
Structural optimization of aircraft components using chaotic pangolin optimizer

February 20, 2026

Sadiq M. Sait, Pranav Mehta, Betül Sultan Yıldız, Ali Rıza Yıldız

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This study introduces an enhanced chaotic pangolin optimizer (MCPO), a nature-inspired metaheuristic algorithm integrated with chaotic maps to solve complex constrained and multimodal engineering design problems. The MCPO simulates the luring and predation behavior of the pangolin in a two-stage framework, enhanced with chaos-based dynamics to improve the balance between exploration and exploitation. Aircraft components and systems are designed and optimized to be lightweight and high-load-carrying. Accordingly, the aircraft component attached to the wing is optimized for stress-carrying capacity and weight. The stress distribution and volume reduction are studied to maintain the system’s overall dynamics and balance. The MCPO achieved effective results in terms of the component’s overall weight and cumulative stresses. The MCPO realized a 1997 g weight of the component, which was 8.6 %, 8.5 %, and 7.8 % lower than the Ship rescue algorithm, Hiking algorithm, and Starfish algorithm, respectively. Furthermore, the weight of 585 g (from 2,582 g to 1,997 g) is reduced compared to the initial design. These results affirm the algorithm’s robustness, precision, and versatility across diverse real-world design domains.
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Distribution of tensile properties of high-speed rail wheels and its correlation with microstructure

February 18, 2026

Gui-Yong Wang, Dong-Ling Li, Lin-Mao Zhu, Xue-Jing Shen, Hai-Zhou Wang

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The tensile strength of railway wheels is a crucial mechanical property in the quality assessment and safe service of wheels. Conventional tensile testing imposes strict requirements on specimen size and can only test one specimen in each experiment, hindering its application to the characterization of the tensile strength distribution of train wheels with complex structures. In this study, six-channel mechanical testing of miniature specimens was applied to characterize the tensile properties of high-speed rail wheel rims, enabling analysis of the correlations between micro-zone tensile properties and microstructures of high-speed rail wheels. The results showed that micro-zone tensile strength gradually decreased as the depth of the micro-zone increased from the tread surface to the radial interior. Moreover, both micro-zone tensile strength and plastic extension strength also gradually decreased as the pearlite lamellar spacing and ferrite area fraction increased. Micro-zone tensile strength and plastic extension strength showed good correlations with pearlite lamellar spacing and ferrite area fraction, with polynomial best-fit curves presenting correlation coefficients >0.95. The results of this study could serve as a technical reference for studying the tensile properties of high-speed rail wheel steel.
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Limiting surface pressures for preloaded bolted connections made of duplex stainless steel

February 16, 2026

Lukas Ehrhardt, Natalie Stranghöner

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Preloading of bolting assemblies in bolted connections yields to compressive stresses in the clamped package and might yield to plastic deformations of the surface of the clamped package under the bolt head and nut or the washers depending on the level of preloading. These compressive stresses can become excessive, leading to time-dependent plastic flow (creep) and herewith also to preload losses. High preload losses should be limited in preloaded slip-resistant and/or fatigue-loaded connections in which the preload is decisive for the load-bearing capacity of the connection. For this purpose, the German guideline VDI 2230-1 defines limiting surface pressures for several metal materials, e. g. carbon steel and austenitic stainless steel, for application in mechanical engineering. However, limiting surface pressures for duplex stainless steels are missing. To close this lack of knowledge, continuous pressure tests were carried out to determine limiting surface pressures p G,s for (lean) duplex and austenitic stainless steel resulting in values of, 591 MPa for 1.4404, 925 MPa for 1.4162, 865 MPa for 1.4362, 1,066 MPa for 1.4410 and 980 MPa for 1.4462. This contribution aims to give a comprehensive overview of the investigation and its results, which might be implemented in a future revision of VDI 2230-1. Herewith, the scope of VDI 2230-1 could be extended to duplex stainless steel.
Open Access
Biomimetic topology optimization and structural evaluation of a manual transmission shift fork

February 13, 2026

Bilal Akyün, Neslihan Özsoy

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This study evaluates the structural performance of a manual transmission shift fork using ANSYS Workbench and a biomimetic topology optimization framework. A 3D model of the original fork was created in SolidWorks, and its structural behavior was analyzed under different loading conditions with the finite element method (FEM). Stress and deformation results identified weak regions, guiding the redesign process. Inspired by the lattice architecture of Euplectella aspergillum , a biomimetic strategy was adopted to improve both durability and material efficiency. Lattice-based geometries were integrated into the fork design, enhancing stability under multiaxial loading. Topology optimization further redistributed material to achieve weight reduction without compromising strength. Under a 350 N load, the optimized design exhibited von Mises stress of 486.72 MPa compared to 41.18 MPa in the original, remaining below the yield strength of SAE 4140 steel. Total deformation rose from 0.0648 mm to 0.3753 mm but stayed within the elastic range. Fork volume decreased from 142.320 to 88.465 mm 3 , representing a 37.8 % reduction. These results demonstrate that biomimetic topology optimization enhances structural efficiency, reduces manufacturing costs, and supports fuel economy by lowering component weight.
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Novel method for determining the efficiency of the GTAW welding process in a S32001 duplex weld

February 11, 2026

Sandra Chacón-Fernández, José L. Meseguer-Valdenebro, Antonio Portolés García

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In this paper, the efficiency of the GTAW process is assessed by evaluating the dilution ratio of the welding process. To determine the degree of dilution and, consequently, the efficiency of the GTAW welding process, the geometry of the weld bead is studied, analyzing the following variables: root dimension, face, perimeter, area, and volume of the weld bead. This work employs an experimental design using the Taguchi methodology in an L4 orthogonal array, where two main factors are defined to weld duplex stainless steel S32001 in flat profiles, 3 mm thick, using the GTAW welding process. This work evaluates the influence of welding parameters on both the process efficiency and the weld bead geometry. Of the two welding parameters studied, amperage and welding speed, amperage has the greatest influence on both the efficiency of the welding process and the geometry of the weld bead, while welding speed has the least influence. The efficiency of the GTAW welding process, as defined by the European standard, is set at a value of 0.6. However, this study determines that for duplex welding, the efficiency of the GTAW process has reached a value of 0.87.
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Enhanced mechanical and tribological behavior of Al356 hybrid composites reinforced with TiB₂-SiC-Fly ash for automotive applications

February 9, 2026

Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan, Raja Gunasekaran, Rajasekar Rathanasamy, Suganeswaran Kandasamy, Mohan Kumar Anand Raj, Santhosh Sivaraj, Karvendhan Sellamuthu

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Demands for composite materials in aero lines and automotive applications has risen, because of their mechanical characteristics and high strength-to-weight ratio. We propose to develop an Al + TSF with low density and high strength for automobile applications. This study investigates the developing the Al356 fabrication with TiB 2 , SiC, and fly ash (TSF) at equal wt.% of 6 %, 12 %, 18 %, and 24 % by stir casting process. The mechanical characteristics like UTS and hardness are tested, along with microstructural behavior is analyzed FESEM and the tribological characteristics of the Al356 were examined by pin on disc tribometer. The UTS and hardness of the AMC increased from 120 MPa to 197 MPa and from 67 MPa to 137 MPa with Al + TSF reinforcement. Various weights (15–60 N), sliding speed (0.55–2.2 m s −1 ) and constant sliding distance of 2,500 m were used to test the tribological performance. It reveals that the optimal combination of Al + TSF (18 %) has less wear and friction at constant load 45 N (0.26 and 0.0099478 mm 3  m −1 ), at constant speed 1.65 m s −1 (0.30 and 0.010056 mm 3  m −1 ). The results indicate that Al356-18 % TSF has enhanced mechanical and tribological performance, placing it as a powerful option for automotive applications.
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Deconvolution of eddy current based C-scans of Inconel cast turbine wheels by use of Richardson–Lucy algorithm

February 9, 2026

Malte Siekmann

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Eddy current (EC) testing, as a non-destructive method for validation of technical products, is widely used due to its advantages in terms of speed and contactless testing. It gains its importance by the possibility of in-line implementation and online testing. Mostly, the reason for its implementation in production lines might be quality-driven as it can be seen in the detection of surface-open as well as subsurface defects. Limits in the differentiation of small material defects are set by the quality of the EC-signal itself. Addition of noise as well as any influence by convolution of the sensor’s aperture function leads to indistinct signals or blurred C-scans. This paper focuses on the deconvolution of EC-Signals and the characterization of defects in the Inconel alloy IN713LC. The methodology used is the Richardson–Lucy algorithm for image deconvolution.
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Effect of austempering on the mechanical properties of X210Cr12 cold work tool steel with molybdenum addition

February 9, 2026

Şükrü Öztürk, Sait Özmen Eruslu, Serdar Osman Yılmaz, Tanju Teker

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The industrial sector is experiencing a rising demand for high-strength alloys in engineering applications. In this study, molybdenum (Mo) strengthened cold work tool steel alloys were produced by sand casting method. Various temperatures, times and cooling environments were selected as heat treatment parameters to determine the effects of heat treatment on the microstructure. The structural changes of heat-treated samples were investigated by scanning electron microscope (SEM) images, energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Vickers hardness tests were conducted on the samples. The effect of heat treatment parameters on the samples was evaluated by abrasive wear resistance under different loads. In molybdenum-containing samples, heat treatment resulted in a uniform size and dispersion of primary carbides. The wear rate of molybdenum added sample decreased by approximately 30 % by heat treatment.
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Effects of graphene oxide content on corrosion resistance and mechanical performance of zinc-rich epoxy coatings under different corrosive environments

February 9, 2026

Hua Zhang, Yubin Fu, Jiakun Lu, Xiao Chen

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Steel structures exposed to harsh marine environments and intense ultraviolet (UV) radiation frequently encounter corrosion challenges. In this paper, five zinc-rich epoxy coating/steel substrate specimens with varying graphene oxide (GO) contents (0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7 wt.%) were designed to evaluate their corrosion resistance and mechanical performance under dry-wet cycling (DWC) and UV dry-wet cycling coupling (UVDWC) conditions. Surface morphology was initially characterized using electron microscopy, while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) provided microstructural analysis of coating porosity. The corrosion protection capability was assessed through open circuit potential (OCP) measurements and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Mechanical evaluation consisted of three-point bending tests for elastic modulus determination and tensile testing combined with digital image correlation (DIC) to characterize interfacial bonding properties through fracture strength, fracture toughness, and interfacial shear strength analyses. The results demonstrated that the enhancement effect of GO on both corrosion resistance and mechanical properties of the coating/steel substrate system initially increased and then decreased with increasing GO content. The optimal performance was achieved at 0.3 wt.% GO content, where the composite system exhibited maximum corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. However, it was found that exposure to UV radiation compromised the enhancement effect of GO, indicating that environmental conditions may influence its enhancement efficacy.
Open Access
Innovative static force model for pneumatic artificial muscles: nonlinear behavior analysis and validation

February 2, 2026

Muhammed Ömer İbiş, Sedat İriç, Akin Oguz Kapti

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This study presents an innovative approach to obtain the tensile force produced by pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs) exhibiting nonlinear behavior as a function of pressure and muscle length. The static force model, which has an essential place in controlling and understanding the behavior of PAM, is obtained by considering the change of the fiber-winding angle, the change of the internal air volume, and the potential energy of the bladder. Within the scope of this study, an original experimental setup was designed and manufactured to experimentally determine the tensile force produced by PAM depending on the applied air pressure and contraction rate. The effectiveness of the static force model is compared with experimental data for four artificial muscles: Festo DMSP-10-100, DMSP-10-150, DMSP-20-200, and DMSP-20-300. It is understood that the deviation rate of the force characteristic model results from the experimental results was less than 2 % for 20 mm diameter PAMs and less than 4 % for 10 mm diameter PAMs.
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Joint and strength properties of PTA welded AISI 2205 steel

January 28, 2026

Tanju Teker, Sinan Aydın

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Duplex stainless steel, consisting of ferrite and austenite, has attracted wide attention in the past 20 years by exhibiting superior performance with excellent strength and corrosion performance. In this study, 2205 type steel joints were manufactured by plasma arc welding technique. The structure and strength properties of the joints were detected through scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), elemental mapping, tensile test, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and microhardness evaluations. Fractographic analysis was carried out utilizing SEM. The plasma arc welding (PAW) process resulted in a limited heat-affected zone and achieved a high depth-to-width penetration ratio. Moreover, this technique helped maintain the ferrite and austenite phases within the desired ranges. The maximum tensile strength was detected as 455 MPa in S3 Sample. A ductile fracture pattern appeared in the weld metal.
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Comparison of butt and lap joints in TIG welding of a AA2219 aluminum alloy

January 28, 2026

Saravanan Paranthaman, Jayabalakrishnan Duraivelu, Ravi Samraj, Balachandar Krishnamurthy

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The work analyzes the effect of weld configuration on the load-bearing performance of TIG-welded joints in AA2219 aluminum alloy. The direct current electrode negative gas tungsten arc welding process was used to fabricate two types of joints, butt and lap, in optimum parameters. To assess the mechanical integrity of the joint, mechanical test was conducted to indicate that the lap joint had a better peak load capacity of 29.8 kN than 22.8 kN of butt joint due to the presence of higher effective load-bearing area. The butt joint showed higher load carrying capacity due to higher hardness in the weld metal and heat-affected zone. Microstructural analysis of both joints under low- and high-resolution imaging revealed differences in grain morphology and precipitate size. Fine and densely distributed precipitates were observed in the butt joint, whereas coarse and larger second-phase particles were observed in the lap joint. This difference may be attributed to variations in the thermal cycle during TIG welding. Fractographic examination also confirmed ductile fracture in the butt joint and quasi-cleavage fracture in the lap joint.
Open Access
Effect of austenitizing heat treatment on microhardness and corrosion resistance of 1.4116 martensitic stainless steel

January 23, 2026

Meryem Altay, Hakan Aydın, Enes Pirge

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Martensitic stainless steels are utilized in applications requiring high hardness, low wear, and elevated corrosion resistance. Owing to their high alloying element content, they can be hardened through heat treatment. To achieve the desired mechanical properties and corrosion resistance, heat treatment parameters must be appropriately selected; the ratios of martensite, carbide, and retained austenite in the microstructure should be balanced. In this study, temperature and time parameters in the austenitizing heat treatment of 1.4116 (X50CrMoV15) martensitic stainless steel, commonly used in the knife manufacturing industry, were experimentally investigated to obtain an optimal microstructure, maximum hardness, and high corrosion resistance. Temperature values of 1,000 °C, 1,020 °C, 1,040 °C, 1,080 °C, 1,100 °C, and 1,120 °C, as well as durations of 180 s, 210 s, and 260 s, were examined. At lower temperatures, insufficient hardness was achieved due to incomplete austenite transformation and partial dissolution of carbides. At higher temperatures, grain coarsening and retained austenite formation led to a decrease in hardness. At the optimal temperature of 1,080 °C, significant carbide dissolution occurred, complete austenite transformation was achieved, and high-carbon martensite was formed, resulting in maximum hardness. In the time-based experiments, an increase in duration led to a reduction in retained austenite in the microstructure and an increase in hardness. From a corrosion resistance perspective, samples with higher hardness exhibited lower corrosion resistance; however, with increasing duration, corrosion resistance improved due to the activation of diffusion mechanisms.
Open Access
Ballistic performance of multi-layered armor combinations under 7.62 × 51 mm FMJ bullet impact

January 23, 2026

Mehmet Özer, Kaan Ferikel, Fatih Balıkoğlu, Tayfur Kerem Demircioğlu, İbrahim Kutay Yilmazçoban, Can Çivi

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This work performed a nonlinear numerical analysis of Armox 500T and Hardox 450 armor steels, Kevlar 29/epoxy laminate, and aluminum honeycomb materials under ballistic conditions, validating the results via experimental data. The ballistic performance of 20 distinct armor configurations was investigated, including monolithic steel, steel-composite, and steel-composite-honeycomb panels produced by various material arrangements. Ballistics tests were conducted using 7.62 × 51 mm full metal jacket bullets with a muzzle velocity of 838 ± 15 m s −1 under the NIJ 0108.01 III protection level standard. The effect of Kevlar29/epoxy layer thickness in multi-layered panels was examined extensively. The results showed that the ballistic performance of the composite armors was significantly improved due to the combination of monolithic steel plates with Kevlar 29/epoxy and aluminum honeycomb layers. Steel-Kevlar 29/epoxy and steel-Kevlar 29/epoxy-honeycomb multi-layered plates provide identical ballistic protection to monolithic steel counterparts while being 51 wt.% and 57 wt.% lighter than monolithic steel armor. Comprehensive finite element simulations of the ballistic impact events were conducted to elucidate the phenomena of defeat and penetration with greater precision.

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Journal Impact Factor	3.5	2024, Journal Citation Reports (Clarivate, 2025)
5-year Journal Impact Factor	2.3	2024, Journal Citation Reports (Clarivate, 2025)
Journal Citation Indicator	0.84	2024, Journal Citation Reports (Clarivate, 2025)
CiteScore	4.7	2024, Scopus (Elsevier B.V., 2025)
SCImago Journal Rank	0.571	2024, SJR (Scimago Lab, 2025; Data Source: Scopus)
Source Normalized Impact per Paper	1.032	2024, CWTS Journal Indicators (CWTS B.V., 2025; Data Source: Scopus)

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Herausgeber
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Thomas Böllinghaus (MT@degruyter.com)

University of Namibia (UNAM)
Advisor to the Vice Chancellor
Faculty of Agriculture, Engineering & Natural Sciences
340 Mandume Ndemufayo Avenue, Pioneerspark
PB 13301, Windhoek, Namibia

Editorial Board
Suresh Babu, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
Manfred Bacher-Höchst, Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart, Germany
Y. Frank Chen, Pennsylvania State University Harrisburg, Middleton, Pennsylvania, USA
Carl E. Cross, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
Dan Eliezer, Ben Gurion University, Be'er Scheva, Israel
Cagatay Elibol, Turkish-German University, Istanbul, Turkey
Norbert Enzinger, Graz University of Technology, Austria
Petrina Johannes, University of Namibia, Ongwediva, Namibia
Boonrat Lohwongwatana, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
Paul Kah, University West, Trollhättan, Sweden
Peter Mayr, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
Andreas Neidel, Siemens Energy, Berlin, Germany
Peter Starke, Kaiserslautern University of Applied Sciences, Kaiserslautern, Germany
Tanju Teker, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Türkiye
Frank Walther, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany

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eISSN:

2195-8572

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0025-5300

Language:

English

Publisher:

De Gruyter

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First published:

January 1, 1959

Publication Frequency:

12 issues per year

eISSN: 2195-8572

ISSN: 0025-5300

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