Research review of diversified reinforcement on aluminum metal matrix composites: fabrication processes and mechanical characterization

3.1 Solid state method

The solid state method includes: powder metallurgy (PM) process, diffusion bonding process, and physical vapor deposition for AMCs fabrication.

3.1.1 PM process

This process consists of four basic steps: (i) blending of gas-atomized matrix and reinforcement, (ii) compacting the homogeneous blend, (iii) degassing the preform to remove volatile contaminants, and (iv) consolidation by vacuum hot pressing. Finally, hot pressed billets can be extruded as shown in Figure 2. In this method, the volume content of reinforcement can be easily controlled [9], and grain refinement during mixing improves the hardness and strength of the composites, while PM is not an ideal technology for mass production.

Figure 2:

Schematic view of PM process for AMC fabrication.

3.1.2 Diffusion bonding process

Foil-fiber-foil bonding processes, matrix alloy of foil or powder cloth, and fiber arrays are stacked together as illustrated in Figure 3. Stacked layers are hot pressed through hot isostatic pressing; hence, diffusion bonding takes place between the materials. The main advantage of this method is fiber orientation, and fiber percentage is closely controlled. On the other hand, it requires higher processing temperature and pressure. Expensive and limited shapes can be fabricated through this process [9], [17].

Figure 3:

Schematic view of foil-fiber-foil diffusion bonding process.

3.2 Liquid metallurgy route

The most common liquid metallurgy processes are stir casting (SC), squeeze casting (SQ), spray co-deposition, and in situ processes.

3.2.1 Stir casting process

In SC process, reinforcement is added into the liquid matrix melt, and the MMCs then solidify. After melting of the matrix, it is stirred vigorously for a while to form a vortex in the melt; thereafter, reinforcing particles are added at the side of the vortex as shown in Figure 4. It is simple, economical, and applicable for mass production. Poor interfacial bonding, wettability [18], [19], [20], and non-uniform reinforcement distribution are observed to some extent.

Figure 4:

Schematic view of SC process.

3.2.2 SQ process

Molten metal is forced under pressure into particulate pre-form to produce MMCs. The matrix material with the required additives is melted in a crucible, and the reinforcing element is preheated separately. Finally, molten metal is poured on to the reinforcement, and simultaneously, pressure is applied through a ram as illustrated in Figure 5. The main benefits of this process are minimum interfacial reaction of matrix with reinforcement, low shrinkage, and ability to fabricate complex shapes [9].

Figure 5:

Schematic view of SQ technique.

3.2.3 Spray co-deposition process

Melted metal and liquid stream are atomized; a fine solid powder is formed due to the rapid solidification of the metal. The stated technique is modified by co-depositing the reinforcing element with the matrix as shown in Figure 6. Higher production rate and lower solidification time promotes a minimum reaction of matrix with reinforcement [9]. Particle distribution in the composite depends upon the size and percentage of the reinforcement.

Figure 6:

Schematic view of spray co-deposition technique.

3.2.4 In situ process

There are two major types of in situ process: (i) reactive and (ii) non-reactive.

The reactive type process consists of two elements, which react exothermically for the production of the reinforcing phase. For example, TiB₂ particles are formed as:

(1)2B+Ti+Al→TiB2+Al

In the non-reactive type process, monotectic and eutectic phases of alloys are used to form the reinforcement and matrix. Unidirectional solidification is controlled in the in situ process to produce MMCs, and a schematic view of the in situ process is shown in Figure 7. A crucible with a eutectic alloy moves downward from the top, and alternatively, the induction coil moves vice versa, when heating the alloy. This movement results in further melting followed by re-solidification of the composite under controlled cooling conditions. This process eliminates the wettability problem, so a clean and strong interface is formed between the matrix and the reinforcement [9].

Figure 7:

Schematic view of in situ process.

Moreover, there is continuous development in the fabrication processes for the enrichment of the mechanical properties of AMCs.

In the gravity casting method, the cooling rate is low; and hence, a tendency of non-homogeneous reinforcing particle distribution in the matrix and porosity formation is observed. The porosity level is decreased by applying pressure during the SQ process. The compocasting method has a low agglomeration of Al₂O_3p, better wettability, and more uniform distribution, which proves that it has better mechanical properties than SC [21].

Rajan et al. [22] compared SC, compocasting, and SQ for 5% fly ash (FA_p)-reinforced AMCs. They observed that the SQ method had better FA_pdistribution than compocasting and SC. The major elements of FA are SiO₂, aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) and Fe₂O₃, which react with Al and Mg alloys:

(2)2Al(l)+Mg(l)+2SiO2(s)→MgAl2O4(s)+2Si(s)

(3)3Mg(l)+4Al2O3(s)→3MgAl2O4(s)+2Al(l)

(4)2Al(l)+32SiO(2)→32Si(s)+Al2O3(s)

(5)2Al(l)+3Fe2O3(s)→2Fe(s)+Al2O3(s)

The MgAl₂O₄ spinels presents at interface or are distributed in the matrix, which leads to an increase in the undesirable particle-matrix debonding. In the case of the compocasting technique, the Si content in the matrix can minimize the kinetics of the reaction shown in equation (2). On the other hand, eutectic Si and Fe intermetallic are formed with a higher amount in the SC process as shown in equations (4) and (5). Hence, the compocasting process gives a better AMC quality than SC.

Conventional fabrication processes produce agglomerated arrangement of matrix and reinforcement, which lead to lower mechanical properties of AMCs. Barekar et al. [23] focused on distributive and dispersive mixing of composition under shearing action during the fabrication of AMCs. They have proposed the melt conditioned high-pressure die casting (MC-HPDC) method for AMC fabrication. The MC-HPDC process has improved particle distribution in the matrix with a strong interfacial bonding. Hence, better ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and tensile elongation have been reported compared with the conventional process.

In mechanical SC, the stirrer is used to rotate molten metal in a crucible. But in mechanical stirring, the stirrer erodes frequently during the stirring process, and eroded particles are mixed with the composite. Moreover, in some cases, the reinforcing particles are broken during stirring. Hence, the quality of the composite deteriorates [24]. These problems can be overcomed using the novel technique of electromagnetic stir casting (EMS). When AC power is supplied to the motor’s stator, an electromagnetic field is created [25]. Hence, the fluid (molten metal) inside the stator will rotate to achieve effective and reliable stirring [26] as shown in Figure 8. A vortex can draw reinforcement into the melt, so continuous dispersement is achieved [24], [27], [28].

Figure 8:

Schematic view of EMS process setup.

Dwivedi et al. [29] investigated the mechanical performance of SiC_p (5%, 10%, 15%) reinforced in A356, fabricated using the EMS process. They have reported enhancement in tensile strength, hardness, and toughness by the addition of SiC_p in A356.

Clustering of particles is observed in AMCs, when fabricated through the conventional stirring process. Also, porosity is observed due to gas entrapment, hydrogen formation, and shrinkage during solidification. Consequently, it degrades the mechanical properties of AMCs [30], [31], [32]. This can be overcomed by applying ultrasonic treatment (UST) in AMC fabrication. Figure 9 shows the ultrasonic vibration-assisted technique for AMC fabrication. UST creates strong non-linear transient cavitation and acoustic streaming in the molten Al [33]. UST is capable of producing sufficient energy for breaking particle clusters and removes unwanted surface gases, thus, resulting in the improvement of wetting characteristic with molten Al. Moreover, oscillating and collapsing cavities generate better dispersion; hence, a homogeneous AMC microstructure is achieved [34], [35]. The porosity observed is 6.54% for AMC samples without ultrasonic treatment, and by the application of 12 min of ultrasonic vibration, it is reduced considerably to 0.86% [36].

Figure 9:

Schematic view of the ultrasonic vibration-assisted technique for AMCs fabrication.

Kai et al. [37] carried out an ultrasonic process by breaking the agglomerated clusters of nano ZrB₂ particle, which resulted in improved tensile property of AMCs. Mohanty et al. [38] have fabricated Al₂O_3p-reinforced nanocomposites using ultrasonic cavitation and reported enhancement of mechanical property with uniform distribution of nanoparticles in the matrix. Harichandran and Selvakumar [39] successfully fabricated micro and nano B₄C_p-reinforced AMCs using an ultrasonic cavitation-assisted fabrication process. First, mechanical stirring was employed for 10 min as a primary distribution of particles in the molten Al. Subsequently ultrasonic cavitation was achieved by dipping a probe into the molten Al to break the particle clusters. The nanocomposite has higher ductility, strength, impact energy, and hardness than the micro B₄C_p-reinforced AMCs.

Liu et al. [40] combined an in situ technique with ultrasonic vibration treatment for Ti and Gr-reinforced AMCs. The following exothermic reactions have been observed:

(6)Ti+3Al=Al3Ti

(7)Al3Ti+C=TiC+3Al

In the meantime, for the in situ technique, an ultrasonic generator of 1.5 kW and 20 kHz frequency was used to create vibration into the molten aluminum. Hence, because of ultrasonic degassing, the porosity level was decreased remarkably. Moreover, the particle clusters were broken, and oxide inclusions were eliminated effectively.

An innovative approach using electroceramic and ceramic particle as reinforcements, electroceramic reinforcements of pyroelectric lead barium niobate (PBN_p) and piezoelectric lead lanthanum zirconate titanate (PLZT_p) along with ceramic particle SiC_pfor AMC fabrication, was carried out by Montalba et al. [41]. Multiple particle-reinforced AMCs were fabricated by applying ultrasonic treatment; hence, superior particle dispersion and remarkable wettability were observed.

Accumulative roll bonding (ARB) is a remarkable technique applied for AMC fabrication. Roll bonding is carried out with imposing reinforcement into the matrix. An ultra-fine grain structure is achieved, consequently strengthening the fabricated rolled sheet [42], [43]. Rezayat et al. [44] investigated the effect of ARB cycles on AMCs. Tensile strength increased with ARB cycles and maximum 256 MPa reported for eight cycles with only 2 vol.% Al₂O_3p, which is five times higher than Al.

The functionally graded composite material (FGCM) is a relatively advanced composite, in which microstructure and material composition are diverse in controlling the physical and mechanical properties. The FGCM has been successfully fabricated through SC followed by the centrifugal casting (CG) method [45], [46], [47]. Savaş et al. [48] fabricated the SiC_p-reinforced AMCs through the CG method, and at the outer region, maximum percentage of particles were observed; hence, a higher hardness value has been reported.

Abdizadeh et al. [49] fabricated the MgO_p-reinforced AMCs using SC and PM. Temperature values selected for SC were 800°C, 850°C, and 950°C, while 575°C, 600°C, and 625°C were selected for PM. Better homogeneous distribution and less porosity level in SC were observed, thus better properties were achieved than PM, within the decided range of temperatures. Temperatures of 625°C for PM and 850°C for SC were optimum for the best value of mechanical properties.

The indigenously developed enhanced SC process, consisting of two steps of stirring method, was used for AMCs fabrication. Better reinforcement distribution was observed. The addition of 1% Mg during the stirring improved wettability, and the addition of argon gas avoided unnecessary reaction of molten aluminum with the atmosphere. As a result, AMC performance has been improved remarkably through this process [50]. Mg addition reduces the surface energy of Al, which decreases the contact angle between the molten matrix and the reinforcement, consequently promoting wettability [51]. In in situ powder metallurgy (ISPM), Akhlaghi and Zare-Bidaki [52] combined the SC and PM processes and obtained an enhancement in the AMC properties.

By using any of above suitable, economical, or feasible fabrication processes, it is necessary to evaluate the tribological, mechanical, electrical, and corrosion performance of AMCs. The tribological aspects of diversified reinforcement on AMCs have been already reviewed [53]. In the present article, an attempt is made to review the effect of diversified reinforcement on mechanical characterization in AMCs.

4.1 Aluminum matrix composite for individual reinforcement

The overall mechanical properties of AMCs increase when high strength ceramic particles are added to ductile aluminum. When only ceramic particles are reinforced with aluminum, it produces an individual reinforced AMC. The mechanical characterizations of the individual particulate-reinforced AMCs are listed in Table 1. By increasing the reinforcement percentage in AMCs, the deformation of the matrix material is restricted. Hence, the mechanical property except impact strength has been improved with increasing vol./wt.% of the reinforcements [58], [79].

The effect of the matrix particle size (Al), vol. fraction, and particle size (SiC_p) on the hardness of the AMCs was studied using the central composite design (CCD) method. A smaller Al particle size and a bigger SiC_p size increase the hardness of the AMCs [59]. Kok [60] fabricated the AMCs through a vortex method and the subsequently applied pressure. The tensile strength and the hardness of the AMCs increased with decreasing Al₂O_3p size. The coarser particles were more uniformly dispersed, while fine Al₂O_3p agglomerated in the matrix material.

Vedani et al. [61] evaluated the tensile strength of SiC_p and Al₂O_3p-reinforced AMCs at a temperature range of 300°C–500°C. They observed that 20% of SiC_p with 2618 Al has a higher tensile strength than 20% of Al₂O_3p with 2618 Al. Ductility has been improved remarkably at high temperatures, especially with fine particle reinforcement, and 20% of Al₂O_3p with 2618 Al has a higher tensile strength than 20% of Al₂O_3p with 6061 Al within 300°C–350°C, which indicates that selection of the matrix alloy plays a crucial role for the enhancement of the mechanical property.

Ceschini et al. [62] have found tensile properties of Al₂O_3preinforced on 6061 and 7005 Al at ambient temperatures, 100°C, 150°C, and 250°C. The temperature up to 100°C did not have a noteworthy effect on tensile strength and ductility. The tensile strength decreased and the ductility increased notably at 250°C. The MgAl₂O₄ spinels present in composites may promote void nucleation at the interface. Hence, it resulted in interfacial decohesion at the interface and, furthermore, failure of the composite. At higher temperature, the matrix becames softer, which results easily pulling out of reinforcement from matrix.

Nano Al₂O_3p-reinforced AMCs have been fabricated via the SC method by altering the stirring time. It was observed that 4 min of stirring was better compared to 8, 12, and 16 min. Moreover, Cu and Al metallic powders were milled independently with nano Al₂O_3p-reinforced AMCs. Cu addition was found to be better than Al addition because Cu provided a better strengthening effect as well as better Al₂O_3p distribution in the AMCs [63].

Zebarjad and Sajjadi [64] studied the effect of milling times, varying from 20, 30, 75, 150, 270, 330, 450, 600 to 900 min on the Al₂O_3p-reinforced AMCs. The milled AMCs was found to be harder compared to the AMCs without milling. However, the hardness decreased with temperature in both the types. MoSi_2p-reinforced AMCs was produced by Corrochano et al. [65] using PM. Ball milling has reduced the MoSi_2p size and matrix grain size, which led to enhanced UTS with milling time without losing the ductility of the AMCs.

Wettability is the ability of the liquid to spread on a solid surface [9]. The wettability of the reinforcement in the melt is reduced with reinforcement size; consequently, the AMC quality is deteriorated. Mazaheri et al. [80] have improved the wettability by giving HT to B₄C_p by heating at 800°C for 1 h and also added Na₃AlF₆ flux into the melt.

Lai and Chung [81] reported that SiC_p reacts with Al at an elevated temperature as shown in equation (8). The brittle aluminum carbide formed has a tendency to weaken the interfacial bond between the matrix and the reinforcement. Thus, a small amount of SiC_p is consumed due to the described reaction, which reduces the actual quantity of added SiC_p. Moreover, silicon leads to non-homogeneous distribution of reinforcement in the matrix. Hence, the AMC quality deteriorates.

Ramesh et al. [82] performed electroless Ni-P coating on SiC_p,which eliminates the above unwanted interfacial reaction. The metallic coating on the ceramic particles increases the surface energy of the ceramic particles, which improves the wettability by making a better contacting interface to metal with metal despite the metal being mixed with a ceramic [31]. Davidson and Regener [66] studied the tensile strength of Cu coated and uncoated SiC_p with Al matrix. They observed a decohesion between the particulates and the matrix in the case of the uncoated particle-reinforced composite. Li et al. [83] observed an enhancement in the ultimate tensile strength for Bi₂O₃ coated on the aluminum borate whisker-reinforced AMCs. TiB_2p-coated B₄C_p-reinforced AMCs exhibited better tensile strength and hardness than uncoated AMCs [84].

Electroless Ni-P-coated Si₃N_4p-reinforced AMCs were fabricated by Ramesh et al. [85] through SC. They reported that interfacial region was free from any reaction during the fabrication of AMCs. Hence, a good interfacial bonding between matrix and reinforcement was observed. The UTS value was increased to 99% for 10 wt.% Ni-P-coated Si₃N_4p-reinforced AMCs compared with that of the matrix.

The secondary process like extrusion, rolling, and forging are also carried out on AMCs to improve the mechanical properties. Extrusion processes reduces the reinforcing particle size. Also, by reducing plastic deformation and pull out tendency of reinforcement from the matrix, composite properties can be enhanced [82]. Cöcen and Önel reported that extruded specimens have superior strength and ductility compared to cast specimens. In casted samples, the tensile strength of the AMCs increases up to 17 vol.% SiC_p, and after that, upon further addition, it decreases, while tensile strength of the AMCs increase up to 26 vol.% SiC_p for the extruded AMCs. The significant finding in this paper is that the extrusion process is more fruitful in the matrix with a higher reinforcement percentage for property enhancement [67].

The rolling process closes the pores and, thus, results in improved hardness and UTS of AMCs [86]. It also has been reported that hot rolled Al₂O_3p or carbon particle-reinforced AMCs have better tensile properties than cold rolled ones [87].

Badini et al. [68] reported that neither breaking of SiC_p nor void formation occurs at interfaces during tensile testing at 300°C for forged AMCs. AlxFeNi intermetallic compounds have been observed in forged specimens, which promoted dynamic recrystallization of the matrix during the forging. Hence, dislocation motion was inhibited, which leads to enhanced stability of the matrix at a high temperature [69].

HT is a heating and cooling process used on metal for further enhancement of the mechanical properties and is successfully applied on the AMCs. Srivatsan and Al-Hajri [70] concluded that UTS at 27°C of peak-aged was lower than under-aged specimens, but at 120°C, UTS was nearly similar for both heat-treated samples. Mahadevan et al. [71] successfully modeled Brinell hardness (Y) as expressed in equation (9), with HT parameter like aging time (At), solutionizing time (St), and aging temperature (AT). The correlation coefficient (R) was 0.82, which indicates that the developed model has good correlation with the experimental data.

It has been reported that extrusion with T6 HT showed better tensile properties and hardness compared to gravity-casted SiC_p-reinforced AMCs, due to better equiaxed structure and homogeneous particle distribution in the matrix [88].

Sulaiman et al. [72] investigated the SiO_2p-reinforced AMCs using the CO₂ sand molding method. Tensile strength and modulus decreased with an increase in SiO_2p. Because of the compressive nature of SiO_2p, compressive strength has better influence than tensile strength. For 5 wt.% CNT-reinforced AMCs, improvement up to 50% in tensile strength as well as 23% in stiffness compared with those of pure Al has been observed [89].

Baradeswaran and Elaya Perumal [73] observed that the addition of K₂TiF₆ eliminates oxide formation, which encourages wettability. Ceramic reinforcement resists dislocation motion, which offers resistance against fracture. B₄C_p provides more restriction on plastic flow during deformation and tends to improve compressive strength.

Arik [74] observed more homogenous Si₃N_4pdispersion in mechanical alloying processes than in conventional mixing in the Al matrix and reported significant improvement in AMC properties. A large amount of Si₃N_4p in the matrix resulted in cold welding as well as easy fracturing. In this investigation, 10% of the Si₃N_4p-reinforced AMCs have demonstrated better transverse rupture strength, density, and hardness compared with 5% and 15% of the Si₃N_4p-reinforced AMCs.

Lee et al. [75] studied the pressureless infiltration (PI) method using 5% and 7.5% vol. BN_p-reinforced AMCs. Aluminum nitride formed due to the reaction between Al and BN_p increases the UTS as shown in the equation:

SiC_p-reinforced AMCs have exhibited better ultimate tensile strength, hardness, and compressive strength compared with Al₂O_3p-reinforced AMCs and cenosphere-reinforced AMCs. Another important finding was that 8% of SiC_p-reinforced AMCs have exhibited better ultimate tensile strength and compressive strength compared with 12% and 16% SiC_p-reinforced AMCs, while the hardness of 16% SiC_p-reinforced AMCs was better than the 8% and 12% SiC_p-reinforced AMCs [90].

Abdizadeh et al. [91] investigated the mechanical properties of AMCs by comparing ZrSiO_4p and TiB_2p reinforcement. They also evaluated the effect of the processing temperature of AMCs, fabricated through the SC process. TiB_2phas better wettability than ZrSiO_4p, so TiB_2p-reinforced AMCs have better performance. TiB_2phas a lower heat expansion coefficient than of that of ZrSiO_4p; hence, TiB_2p-reinforced AMCs have been found to be better at 850°C and ZrSiO_4p-reinforced AMCs at 750°C.

Fly ash is industrial waste, low in cost and successfully used as reinforcement for fabrication of AMCs [92]. The UTS and hardness increased with the addition of FA_p [93], while the impact strength and ductility of AMCs decreased [94].

Rice husk is a commonly available agricultural element, successfully used as reinforcement for AMC fabrication [95], [96]. Tensile strength, compressive strength, and hardness of AMCs have been enhanced, while ductility decreased with increasing RHA_p. The RHA_p act as barriers and harden the Al matrix [78].

Particle swarm optimization, multiple linear regression and genetic algorithm, etc., techniques are frequently used for modeling and optimization of the mechanical properties. Shabani and Mazahery [86] have proposed the hybrid PSO-GA-based novel method, which predicts the mechanical properties of the Al₂O_3p-reinforced AMCs with better accuracy and reliability than the single optimization method.

Lee et al. [97] have modeled the particle clustering effect of the ceramic particle-reinforced AMCs. The model was compared with the TiC_p-reinforced AMCs fabricated through PM. The representative volume element based on the tetrakaidecahedral grain boundary structure was reconstructed for 5 vol.% TiC_p-reinforced AMCs through modified random sequential adsorption. The clustered particle arrangement model has a better agreement than the random particle arrangement model with experimental results.

4.2 Aluminum matrix composite based on multiple reinforcements

When at least two reinforcements are present in the matrix, they form as multiple-reinforced AMCs. By cooperative effects of various reinforcement combinations, the AMCs tend to further enrich the mechanical properties. Table 2 shows the mechanical characterization of the multiple particulate-reinforced AMCs.

SiC_pceramic and FA_pindustrial by-products have been used for the enhancement of the tensile strength of the AMCs from 173 MPa to 213 MPa. Also, the hardness value increased from 69.53 HV to 78.8 HV [98]. Mahendra and Radhakrishna [103] also observed that the tensile strength, compressive strength and impact strength increased with SiC_p and FA_p% in the AMCs.

The strength of the AMCs has been increased by the addition of the hard ceramic Al₂O_3pin the matrix. The compressive strength of the 8-wt.% Al₂O_3p-reinforced AMCs was 10% higher than that of the matrix, while the flexural strength of the 8-wt.% Al₂O_3p-reinforced AMCs was increased up to 23% compared with that of the Al 7075. The Gr_p addition in the AMCs tends to form a thin layer on the tribo surface, which reduces wear, even though hardness is reduced [99]. Baradeswaran et al. [104] have studied the effect of 10 wt.% of B₄C_p and 5 wt.% of Gr_p in AA 6061 and AA 7075 matrix. It has been observed that hybrid-reinforced AA 7075 has found better tensile strength and hardness than hybrid-reinforced AA 6061.

Kumar et al. [105] have investigated the wear performance of the 4-wt.% Gr_p and the 1 to 4 wt.% of the WC_p-reinforced AMCs. The AMCs became more brittle by increasing WC_p percentage; another important finding was that Al6061 with 3 wt.% WC_p has higher hardness than that of the 4-wt.% WC_p composite.

Thermomagnetic treatment was applied by Li et al. on aluminum borate (Al₁₈B₄O₃₃) and iron oxide (Fe₃O₄)-reinforced AMCs. The specimens were subjected to thermomagnetic treatment at 100°C for 1 h with a pulsed magnetic field of 400 kA/m. A higher tensile strength has been reported after thermomagnetic treatment [106].

A neural network is capable of identifying trends from the given data; thus, it is frequently used for prediction. The neural network result has good agreement with the experimental data, for tensile strength, bending strength, and hardness for the 2-, 4-, 8-, 10-, 16-, 20-, 27-, 38-, 45-, 49-, 53-, 60-, 67-, 75-, and 87-μm particle size-reinforced AMCs [100], [101]. Comparison of the different algorithms like Levenberg-Marquardt, quasi-Newton, resilient back propagation and variable learning rate back propagation for the prediction of the bending strength and hardness carried out using the Al₂O_3p/SiC_p-reinforced AMCs by changing the size of the particle was done. The Levenberg-Marquardt was found to be the fastest converging algorithm along with the highest accuracy among all the algorithms [107].