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D-linked and non-d-linked wh-questions in L2 French and L3 English

  • Abdelkader Hermas EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 17. August 2020

Abstract

This study considers L2 French and L3 English ultimate attainment among L1 Moroccan Arabic adult learners. It contrasts the acquisition of two types of wh-questions: discourse-linked and non-discourse-linked questions in root and embedded forms. The results of two acceptability judgment tasks indicate that the advanced learners in L2 French and L3 English are nativelike on d-linked wh-questions but less accurate on non-discourse-linked interrogatives. They successfully unlearn resumption as an L1 strategy to form discourse-linked questions. Therefore, contra the prediction of the Interface Hypothesis, discourse-linking is acquirable though it is a property of the syntax-discourse interface. It does not pose more learning difficulty than quantification (formal wh-feature) of narrow syntax. The study indicates that embedding and thereby the processing cognitive load are the deterministic variables, not the language domain of constructions.


Corresponding author: Abdelkader Hermas, Linguistics, Université du Québec à Montréal Faculté des sciences humaines, Pavillon J.-A. De Sève, DS-3405, 320, rue Sainte-Catherine Est, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3P8, Canada, E-mail:

Appendix

L2 French acceptability judgment tasks

Non-d-linked wh-interrogatives

Root questions with object extraction

  • Qui peut-on rencontrer à Hollywood ?

  • Qui écoutez-vous attentivement en classe ?

  • Qui a-t-on arrêté parmi les manifestants ?

  • Que regardes-tu à la télé samedi soir ?

  • Que manges-tu souvent en petit-déjeuner ?

  • Que préfères-tu pratiquer comme sport ?

Island violation

  • *Qui as-tu entendu l’annonce que le roi a reçu ?

  • *Qui croit-on la rumeur que les fans attendent ?

  • *Qui soutenez-vous le fait que le Sida tue ?

  • *Que croit-on la nouvel que l’équipe a gagné ?

  • *Que rejettes-tu l’idée que la richesse devient ?

  • *Que gardes-tu l’espoir que tu obtiennes ?

Embedded questions (16 items)

  • Subject extraction with overt complementizer (+que)

    • *Qui penses-tu que gagnera les élections ?

    • *Qui dit-on que se rend tard au travail ?

    • *Que crois-tu que pollue l’atmosphère ?

    • *Qui voulez-vous que paie pour la pollution ?

  • Subject extraction with overt complementizer (qui)

    • Qui penses-tu qui raffole de la crème glacée ?

    • Qui crois-tu qui contrôle l’économie mondiale ?

    • Que croyez-vous qui arrêtera la désertification ?

    • Que supposes-tu qui rétablira la justice sociale ?

  • Object extraction with overt complementizer (+que)

    • Qui penses-tu que le peuple portera au pouvoir ?

    • Qui supposez-vous que le prince épousera ?

    • Que penses-tu que la Banque Mondiale fait ?

    • Que rêvez-vous que le monde deviendra ?

D-linked wh-interrogatives

Rootd-linked gap questions with object extraction

  1. Des élèves se sont rendus à un musée d’art. On a vu des tableaux de Rembrandt et d’autres de Van Gogh. On est resté long temps devant un chef-d’œuvre de Picasso.

    • Quel peintre ont-ils beaucoup admiré ?

  2. L’équipe de France de soccer compte d’excellents joueurs comme Zidane, Henry et Thuram.

    • Quel joueur ont-ils choisi comme capitaine ?

  3. La comédie française présente plusieurs humoristes tels que Martin Petit, Jamel Debbouz et Gad Elmaleh.

    • Quel humoriste trouves-tu le plus drôle ?

  4. Dans une agence de location de voiture, on trouve les marques Fiat, Honda, Jeep et Nissan.

    • Quelle voiture préfères-tu prendre en compagne ?

  5. En fin de semaine, RDS diffuse un match de hockey alors qu’Eurosport diffuse un autre de tennis.

    • Quelle chaîne voudrais-tu regarder ?

  6. Pour son anniversaire, le père de Karim lui fait le choix entre un iPod et une montre Swatch.

    • Quel cadeau aurais-tu choisi à sa place ?

Rootd-linked resumptive questions with object extraction (grammatical in MA)

  1. Éva souffre de mal de dents et de la migraine. Demain elle doit voir son dentiste et son médecin avant d’aller chez le pharmacien.

    • *Qui doit-elle le consulter en premier ?

  2. Hier matin, Lucie a vu ses amis Paul et Jacques à l’école. Elle a parlé à Jacques mais elle a ignoré Paul.

    • *Qui l’a-t-elle ignoré hier à l’école ?

  3. Pour le petit déjeuner, maman prépare du jus d’oranger et des gâteaux à Ali mais seulement du café à Hassan.

    • *Qui le régale-t-elle le plus au petit-déjeuner ?

  4. Pour cette semaine, trois films sont à la fiche. Le Seigneur des Anneaux, Bon Cop Bad Cop et Harry Potter.

    • *Quel film préfères-tu le regarder ?

  5. Louise a acheté un manteau noir et un autre marron pour Max. Elle doit retourner le premier au magasin parce qu’il est trop grand.

    • *Quel manteau l’a-t-il trouvé grand ?

  6. Pour les élections, deux partis sont favoris. Un représente la gauche, l’autre la droite. Mon voisin Luc est un libéral.

    • *Quel parti va-t-il l’appuyer aux élections ?

Resumptive questions with island violation (grammatical in MA)

  1. Jean et Fabien ont dérobé un magasin. Plus tard, on a appris que Jean est arrêté et Fabien est recherché.

    • *Qui a-t-on appris la nouvelle qu’il est arrêté ?

  2. Paul a gagné le loto. Son frère Luc a annoncé la bonne nouvelle à tout le monde.

    • *Qui a-t-on annoncé la nouvelle qu’il a gagné ?

  3. Samedi soir, il y’avait une bagarre entre des jeunes à la sortie d’un bar. L’un d’eux a été tué ainsi qu’un monsieur qui passait par là.

    • *Qui crois-tu le fait qu’il a été tué par accident ?

  4. L’équipe du Réal Madrid a déjà gagné la coupe d’Espagne et ses supporters espèrent y ajouter la coupe européenne.

    • *Quelle coupe ont-ils l’espoir que le Réal la gagnera ?

  5. Ali soutient l’idée que la nourriture fraîche est saine. Toutefois, il trouve le faste food plus délicieux.

    • *Quelle nourriture soutient-il l’idée qu’il l’aime ?

  6. Bien qu’elle ait bien révisé, Anne a réussi le test de français mais a échoué celui des maths. Elle ne l’a pas accepté.

    • *Quel test refuse-t-elle le fait qu’elle l’a échoué ?

Embedded d-linked questions

  • Subject extraction with the complementizer (qui)

    1. Julie a entendu ses amis dire que la secrétaire a gagné le loto. Julie leur a précisé que c’était le directeur qui l’a gagné et non pas la secrétaire.

      • Quel collègue disait-elle qui avait gagnait le loto ?

    2. Nadal, Féderer et Jukovic participeront au tournoi de Roland Garros.

      • Quel joueur souhaites-tu qui gagne le trophée ?

    3. L’Italie a gagné la coupe du monde de soccer. Sa victoire a été attribuée soit au jeu collectif de l’équipe, soit à sa discipline ou à sa compétitivité.

      • Quelle qualité penses-tu qui a fait la victoire ?

    4. Steve prend de la drogue. En plus, il ne pratique aucun sport. Sa santé s’est beaucoup détériorée.

      • Quel facteur penses-tu qui nuit le plus à sa santé ?

  • Object extraction with the complementizer (que)

    1. Laura était au cinéma avec son frère, sa voisine et son amie. De retour, elle a dit à sa mère qu’elle a beaucoup aimé la compagnie de sa voisine.

      • Quelle personne a-t-elle dit qu’elle a apprécié ?

    2. Plusieurs partis participent aux élections locales et fédérales. Marie voudrait que la gauche emporte les élections locales.

      • Quelles élections voudrait-elle que la gauche gagne ?

    3. Marie possède déjà deux voitures, une Mercedes et une Honda. Elle veut vendre l’une d’elles pour s’acheter une Ferrari.

      • Quelle voiture penses-tu que Marie va vendre ?

    4. À une réception, les parents ont été accompagnés de leurs enfants. Divers boissons ont été servies dont la limonade et les jus.

      • Quelle boisson crois-tu que les enfants ont bu ?

  • Object extraction resumptive questions (que) (grammatical in MA)

    1. Charlie Chaplin, Woody Allen et Eddie Murphy sont des comédiens célèbres.

      • *Qui crois-tu que les aînés l’admirent beaucoup ?

    2. Tom Cruise a été surpris par un homme. La police soupçonne que c’était un paparazzi ou un fan et non pas un voleur.

      • *Qui suppose-t-on que Tom l’a vu ?

    3. René apprend sur les plus hauts sommets du monde tel que l’Everest, le mont Blanc et le Kilimandjaro.

      • *Quelle montagne sais-tu qu’on le visite le plus ?

    4. Véro a des paires de chaussures de sports, des bottes et des sandales. L’hiver s’approche.

      • *Quelles chaussures pensez-vous que Véro va les mettre ?

L3 English acceptability judgment tasks

Non-d-linked wh-interrogatives

Root questions with object extraction

  • Who did Romeo love in the play?

  • Who did the French people elect president?

  • Who did the police arrest yesterday?

  • What do you often have for breakfast?

  • What do you do on Sunday mornings?

  • What do Moroccans prefer to play?

Island violation

  • *Who did Lisa read the report that the police got?

  • *Who did you hear the announcement that Laura got?

  • *Who did Marc read the story that the king married?

  • *What did Paul hear the news that his wife won?

  • *What do people like the idea that will help them?

  • *What was Lisa shocked at the news that Tom stole?

Embedded questions

  • Subject extraction with overt complementizer (+ that)

    • *Who did Mary say that saw the movie?

    • *Who do you think that discovered America?

    • *What do you think that pollutes the oceans?

    • *What did the radio announce that destroyed the gym?

  • Subject extraction with null complementizer (– that)

    • Who did Bob say had a new apartment?

    • Who do the police claim robbed the bank?

    • What do you think raises unemployment?

    • What do you suppose sank The Titanic?

  • Object extraction with overt complementizer (+ that)

    • Who does Dan hope that he will meet?

    • Who did the police say that they arrested?

    • What do the players insist that they get?

    • What do doctors insist that people need?

  • Object extraction with null complementizer (– that)

    • Who did Nancy say her boss hired?

    • Who did Paul suppose his wife invited?

    • What do you think children love to eat?

    • What did Bill hear the wind destroyed?

D-linked wh-interrogatives

Rootd-linked gap questions with object extraction

  1. The American comedy has some famous actors like Woody Allan and Eddie Murphy

    • Which actor do you find very funny?

  2. Titanic is a disaster movie about the sinking of a ship in the Atlantic. It is also a romance of a rich girl prefers a poor passenger to a rich man of her family.

    • Which passenger did the girl love in the movie?

  3. The soccer team of France has excellent players like Zidane, Henry and Triziguet.

    • Which player did the team choose as captain?

  4. My class went to an art gallery. We saw paintings of Rembrandt and others of Van Gogh. However, everyone liked the works of Picasso.

    • Which paintings did the class admire?

  5. Spain, Italy and France attract millions of tourists every year.

    • Which country do you prefer to visit?

  6. In his free time, Jamel likes to play soccer with his friends. However, his favourite pastime is chess.

    • Which game does Jamel prefer to play?

Rootd-linked resumptive questions with object extraction (grammatical in MA)

  1. Sam has a toothache and flu. Tomorrow he has to see his dentist and his doctor before going to the chemist’s.

    • *Who must Sam see him first?

  2. Yesterday morning, Lisa saw her friends Paul and Joe at school. She talked to Joe but not to Paul.

    • *Who did Lisa ignore him at school?

  3. In the morning, Mom gave Ali orange juice while she gave Hassan coffee.

    • *Who did Mom give him a healthy breakfast?

  4. Kamal always brings his textbook, workbook and notebook to class. However, yesterday he left his notebook at home.

    • *Which book did Kamal forget it yesterday?

  5. Tania bought a black coat and a brown one for Jack. She has to return the first to the store because it is too big for him.

    • *Which coat does Jack find it big?

  6. At a company, there are Fiat, Renault, Jeep and Honda cars all for rent.

    • *Which car do you prefer it in the countryside?

Resumptive questions with island violation (grammatical in MA)

  1. Ali learns about the problems of Africa. Millions of people are dying from different diseases especially AIDS and drought has killed too many animals, too.

    • *Who does Ali know the fact that AIDS is killing them?

  2. Paula won the lottery. Her brother Sam told me about the good news.

    • *Who did Sam tell me the news that she won the lottery?

  3. Last Saturday night, some teenagers were fighting when one of them was killed. A man who was just walking by was killed, too.

    • *Who do you believe the story that he died by accident?

  4. The boss told Lucie that he would send her on a trip to Spain. He also told Léa that she got promoted.

    • *Which person did the boss take the decision that he promoted her?

  5. Ali likes the idea that fresh food is healthy. The problem for him is that he says healthy food does not always taste good. Therefore, he eats fast food.

    • *Which food does Ali like the idea that it is healthy?

  6. Though she studied hard for all the exams, Liz passed the French test but failed maths. She was very frustrated.

    • *Which test was Liz shocked at the fact that she failed it?

Embedded d-linked questions

  • Subjectextraction (– that)

    1. Jim follows a tennis tournament. Though Nadal is a strong player, he said that Federer has a better record.

      • Which player does Jim believe can win the cup?

    2. Many parties are running for the elections. Mary thinks people are more familiar with the liberals while the conservatives need experience.

      • Which party does Mary say can win the elections?

    3. A radio said that a fire destroyed a part of the zoo. Some monkeys were killed and a tiger got free.

      • Which animal did the radio announce ran away?

    4. Usain Bolt and Asafa Powell are taking part in the 100 metres sprint in Oslo.

      • Which athlete do you think will win the race?

  • Object extraction (– that)

    1. The boss and the manager are busy in their offices when Anne comes with a big deal for their company.

      • Which person do you think Anne needs to see?

    2. The boss is testing two employees. One is experienced but unreliable; the other is new but hardworking.

      • Which employee do you expect the boss will hire?

    3. Alex buys packaged food and fresh one. He worries about his health but he also does not have much money.

      • Which food do you suppose Alex finds cheaper?

    4. The Pyramids, the Colosseum and the Eiffel Tower are among the Seven Wonders of the World.

      • Which monument do you think tourists like best?

  • Object extraction resumptive questions (– that) (grammatical in MA)

    1. Charlie Chaplin, Woody Allen and Eddie Murphy are comedian actors.

      • *Who do you suppose Grandmother admires him?

    2. Tom Cruise saw a man leaving his backyard. The police suspected that it was a paparazzi or a fan, not a thief.

      • *Who did the police suspect Tom saw him?

    3. John reads about famous mountains like the Everest, the Mont Blanc and the Kilimanjaro.

      • *Which mountain do you think many people visit it?

    4. Anna has pairs of sports shoes, boots and sandals and winter is in.

      • *Which shoes do you say Anna wears them?

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Published Online: 2020-08-17
Published in Print: 2022-09-27

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