Home Strategic competence, task complexity, and foreign language learners’ speaking performance: a hierarchical linear modelling approach
Article
Licensed
Unlicensed Requires Authentication

Strategic competence, task complexity, and foreign language learners’ speaking performance: a hierarchical linear modelling approach

  • Weiwei Zhang

    Weiwei Zhang has earned her PhD in Education (Applied Linguistics & TESOL) from The University of Auckland, New Zealand. She is currently a fulltime lecturer in the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Interactional Education at Quzhou University, Zhejiang Province, China, having had rich experience in managing language programmes and teaching English as a foreign/second language in China and New Zealand. Her publications have appeared in SSCI journals such as System, Sustainability, Frontiers in Psychology, and other Chinese journals of foreign languages and foreign language education.

     ORCID logo     , Lawrence Jun Zhang

    Lawrence Jun Zhang, PhD, is Professor of Linguistics-in-Education and Associate Dean, Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Auckland, New Zealand. A past Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of Oxford, he has published extensively on the psychology of language learning and writing in Applied Linguistics; Modern Language Journal; Applied Linguistics Review; British Journal of Educational Psychology; Discourse Processes; Reading & Writing; Reading & Writing Quarterly; Journal of Psycholinguistic Research; Instructional Science; System; TESOL Quarterly; Studies in Second Language Acquisition; Language, Culture and Curriculum; Language and Education; Language Teaching Research; and Journal of Second Language Writing. His current interests lie in reading and writing development and language teacher education. He was the sole recipient of the “TESOL Award for Distinguished Research” in 2011 for his article in TESOL Quarterly. He is a co-editor for System, serving on the editorial boards of Journal of Second Language Writing, Applied Linguistics Review, Metacognition & Learning, Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, and RELC Journal. Additionally, he reviews manuscripts for Applied Linguistics, Language Learning, MLJ, Reading & Writing, Reading & Writing Quarterly, Language Teaching, Language Teaching Research, Computer-Assisted Language Learning, and ELT Journal, among other journals.

     ORCID logo EMAIL logo     and Aaron J. Wilson

    Aaron J. Wilson, PhD, is an Associate Professor in Literacies Education and Associate Dean (Research) at the Faculty of Education and Social Work, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. He researches and writes mainly about literacy, particularly disciplinary and adolescent literacy, as well as about teacher professional learning and development. He has won major competitive research grants with a total of almost one million New Zealand dollars and published extensively research on literacies education in journals such as Australian Journal of Language and Literacy; Reading Research Quarterly; Review of Educational Research; Teachers College Record; The Curriculum Journal, Literacy, among others.

    ORCID logo
Published/Copyright: October 24, 2022
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
Applied Linguistics Review
From the journal Applied Linguistics Review Volume 15 Issue 3

Abstract

Understanding the intricate relationships among strategic competence, tasks and performance is an issue of perennial interest in the assessment of foreign/second languages especially in integrated speaking assessment, a field that is under-researched. Against this background, we investigated such complex relationships in the context of integrated speaking assessment of English as foreign language (EFL) learners, hoping to provide additional empirical evidence to address the problem. In the investigation, strategic competence was defined as metacognitive strategy use and was measured via an inventory administered on 120 Chinese university EFL students; task characteristics were conceptualised as task complexity and were measured on a self-rating scale by the students and five EFL teachers; and the students’ speaking performance was indicated by their scores on four integrated speaking assessment tasks. Data analysis through a hierarchy linear modelling approach led to two primary findings: Monitoring, one form of strategic competence, moderated the effect of task complexity on performance; strategic competence had no substantial effects on performance which had an inverse relationship with task complexity. These findings will add validity evidence for the foreign language speaking assessment literature and provide implications for speaking instruction and test development.

Keywords: hierarchy linear modelling; integrated speaking assessment; strategic competence; task complexity
Corresponding author: Lawrence Jun Zhang, School of Curriculum and Pedagogy, Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, E-mail:

About the authors

Weiwei Zhang

Weiwei Zhang has earned her PhD in Education (Applied Linguistics & TESOL) from The University of Auckland, New Zealand. She is currently a fulltime lecturer in the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Interactional Education at Quzhou University, Zhejiang Province, China, having had rich experience in managing language programmes and teaching English as a foreign/second language in China and New Zealand. Her publications have appeared in SSCI journals such as System, Sustainability, Frontiers in Psychology, and other Chinese journals of foreign languages and foreign language education.

Lawrence Jun Zhang

Lawrence Jun Zhang, PhD, is Professor of Linguistics-in-Education and Associate Dean, Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Auckland, New Zealand. A past Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of Oxford, he has published extensively on the psychology of language learning and writing in Applied Linguistics; Modern Language Journal; Applied Linguistics Review; British Journal of Educational Psychology; Discourse Processes; Reading & Writing; Reading & Writing Quarterly; Journal of Psycholinguistic Research; Instructional Science; System; TESOL Quarterly; Studies in Second Language Acquisition; Language, Culture and Curriculum; Language and Education; Language Teaching Research; and Journal of Second Language Writing. His current interests lie in reading and writing development and language teacher education. He was the sole recipient of the “TESOL Award for Distinguished Research” in 2011 for his article in TESOL Quarterly. He is a co-editor for System, serving on the editorial boards of Journal of Second Language Writing, Applied Linguistics Review, Metacognition & Learning, Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, and RELC Journal. Additionally, he reviews manuscripts for Applied Linguistics, Language Learning, MLJ, Reading & Writing, Reading & Writing Quarterly, Language Teaching, Language Teaching Research, Computer-Assisted Language Learning, and ELT Journal, among other journals.

Aaron J. Wilson

Aaron J. Wilson, PhD, is an Associate Professor in Literacies Education and Associate Dean (Research) at the Faculty of Education and Social Work, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. He researches and writes mainly about literacy, particularly disciplinary and adolescent literacy, as well as about teacher professional learning and development. He has won major competitive research grants with a total of almost one million New Zealand dollars and published extensively research on literacies education in journals such as Australian Journal of Language and Literacy; Reading Research Quarterly; Review of Educational Research; Teachers College Record; The Curriculum Journal, Literacy, among others.

  1. Funding: This work was not financially supported by any agency.

  2. Ethics statement: The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by The University of Auckland Ethics Committee. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

References

Alderson, J. Charles, Tineke Brunfaut & Luke Harding. 2017. Bridging assessment and learning: A view from second and foreign language assessment. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice 24(3). 379–387. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2017.1331201.Search in Google Scholar

Anderson, Daniel. 2012. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM): An introduction to key concepts within cross-sectional and growth modeling frameworks. Eugene: Behavioral Research and Teaching.Search in Google Scholar

Anderson, Neil J. 2002. The role of metacognition in second language teaching and learning. ERIC ED463659. Available at: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED463659.Search in Google Scholar

Bachman, Lyle F. 2002. Some reflections on task-based language performance assessment. Language Testing 19(4). 453–476. https://doi.org/10.1191/0265532202lt240oa.Search in Google Scholar

Bachman, Lyle F. 2007. What is the construct? The dialectic of abilities and contexts in defining constructs in language assessment. In Janna Fox, Mari Wesche, Doreen Bayliss, Liying Cheng, Carolyn E. Turner & Christine Doe (eds.), Language testing reconsidered, 41–71. Ottawa, Canada: University of Ottawa Press.10.2307/j.ctt1ckpccf.9Search in Google Scholar

Bachman, Lyle F. & Adrian S. Palmer. 1996. Language testing in practice: Designing and developing useful language tests. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Bachman, Lyle F. & Adrian S. Palmer. 2010. Language assessment in practice: Developing language assessments and justifying their use in the real world. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Barkaoui, Khaled. 2013. Using multilevel modeling in language assessment research: A conceptual introduction. Language Assessment Quarterly 10(3). 241–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2013.769546.Search in Google Scholar

Barkaoui, Khaled, Lindsay Brooks, Merrill Swain & Sharon Lapkin. 2013. Test-takers’ strategic behaviors in independent and integrated speaking tasks. Applied Linguistics 34(3). 304–324. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/ams046.Search in Google Scholar

Bygate, Martin. 2011. Teaching and testing speaking. In Michael H. Long & Catherine J. Doughty (eds.), The handbook of language teaching, 412–440. West Sussex, England: Wiley.10.1002/9781444315783.ch23Search in Google Scholar

Canale, Michael & Merrill Swain. 1980. Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1(1). 1–47. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/I.1.1.Search in Google Scholar

Chamot, Anna Uhl, Sarah Barnhardt, Pamela Beard El-Dinary & Jill Robbins. 1999. The learning strategy handbook. New York, NY: Longman.Search in Google Scholar

Chamot, Anna Uhl & Vee Harris. 2019. Language learning strategy instruction for critical cultural awareness. In Anna Uhl Chamot & Vee Harris (eds.), Learning strategy instruction in the language classroom: Issues and implementation, 123–139. Bristol, England: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781788923415-015Search in Google Scholar

Corriero, Elena F. 2017. Counterbalancing. In Mike Allen (ed.), The sage encyclopaedia of communication research methods, 278–281. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.Search in Google Scholar

Craig, Kym, Daniel Hale, Catherine Grainger & Mary E. Stewart. 2020. Evaluating metacognitive self-reports: Systematic reviews of the value of self-report in metacognitive research. Metacognition and Learning 15(2). 155–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-020-09222-y.Search in Google Scholar

Creswell, John W. & J. David Creswell. 2018. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, 5th edn. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.Search in Google Scholar

Crossley, Scott A. & You Jin Kim. 2019. Text integration and speaking proficiency: Linguistic, individual differences, and strategy use considerations. Language Assessment Quarterly 16(2). 217–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2019.1628239.Search in Google Scholar

Davis, Larry. 2018. Analytic, holistic, and primary trait marking scales. In John I. Liontas & Ali Shehadeh (eds.), The TESOL encyclopaedia of English language teaching, vol. II: Approaches and methods in English for speakers of other languages, 1–6. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0365Search in Google Scholar

Efklides, Anastasia. 2008. Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation and coregulation. European Psychologist 13(4). 277–287. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1027/1016-9040.13.4.277.10.1027/1016-9040.13.4.277Search in Google Scholar

Ellis, Rod, Peter Skehan, Shaofeng Li, Natsuko Shintani & Craig Lambert. 2019. Task-based language teaching: Theory and practice. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/9781108643689Search in Google Scholar

Fazilatfar, Ali Mohammad. 2010. A study of reading strategies using task-based strategy assessment. Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning 53(217). 20–44.Search in Google Scholar

Fernandez, Christina Judy. 2018. Behind a spoken performance: Test-takers’ strategic reactions in a simulated part 3 of the IELTS speaking test. Language Testing in Asia 8(1). 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-018-0073-4.Search in Google Scholar

Flavell, John H. 1979. Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist 34(10). 906–911. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906.10.1037//0003-066X.34.10.906Search in Google Scholar

Frost, Kellie, Josh Clothier, Annemiek Huisman & Gillian Wigglesworth. 2020. Responding to a TOEFL iBT integrated speaking task: Mapping task demands and test takers’ use of stimulus content. Language Testing 37(1). 133–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532219860750.Search in Google Scholar

Fulcher, Glenn & Rosina Marquez Reiter. 2003. Task difficulty in speaking tests. Language Testing 20(3). 321–344. https://doi.org/10.1191%2F0265532203lt259oa.10.1191/0265532203lt259oaSearch in Google Scholar

Gan, Zhengdong. 2012. Complexity measures, task type, and analytic evaluations of speaking proficiency in a school-based assessment context. Language Assessment Quarterly 9(2). 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2010.516041.Search in Google Scholar

Hidri, Sahbi. 2018. Introduction: State of the art of assessing second language abilities. In Sahbi Hidri (ed.), Revisiting the assessment of second language abilities: From theory to practice, 1–19. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.10.1007/978-3-319-62884-4_1Search in Google Scholar

Huang, Heng-Tsung Danny & Shao Ting Alan Hung. 2013. Comparing the effects of test anxiety on independent and integrated speaking test performance. TESOL Quarterly 47(2). 244–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2010.516041.Search in Google Scholar

Huang, Heng-Tsung Danny, Shao Ting Alan Hung & Lia Plakans. 2018. Topical knowledge in L2 speaking assessment: Comparing independent and integrated speaking test tasks. Language Testing 35(1). 27–49.10.1177/0265532216677106Search in Google Scholar

Huang, Li-Shih. 2013. Cognitive processes involved in performing the IELTS speaking test: Respondents’ strategic behaviours in simulated testing and non-testing contexts. IELTS Research Reports Series, No. 1. IDP and IELTS Australia.Search in Google Scholar

Hughes, Rebecca & Beatrice Szczepek Reed. 2017. Teaching and researching speaking, 3rd edn. New York, NY: Routledge.10.4324/9781315692395Search in Google Scholar

In’nami, Yo & Khaled Barkaoui. 2019. Multilevel modeling to examine sources of variability in second language test scores. In Vahid Aryadoust & Michell Raquel (eds.), Quantitative data analysis for language assessment, vol. 2: Advanced methods, 150–170. New York, NY: Routledge.10.4324/9781315187808-7Search in Google Scholar

Kormos, Judit. 2011. Speech production and the cognition hypothesis. In Peter Robinson (ed.), Second language task complexity: Researching the cognition hypothesis of language learning and performance, 39–60. Amsterdam, The Netherland: Benjamins.10.1075/tblt.2.06ch2Search in Google Scholar

Lee, Jiyong. 2019. Task complexity, cognitive load, and L1 speech. Applied Linguistics 40(3). 506–539. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amx054.Search in Google Scholar

Luoma, Sari. 2004. Assessing speaking. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511733017Search in Google Scholar

Lynch, Raymond, Adrian Hurley, Olivia Cumiskey, Brian Nolan & Bridgeen McGlynn. 2019. Exploring the relationship between homework task difficulty, student engagement and performance. Irish Educational Studies 38(1). 89–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2018.1512889.Search in Google Scholar

McNamara, Timothy Francis. 1996. Measuring second language performance. London, England: Longman.Search in Google Scholar

Newton, Jonathan M. & I. S. P. Nation. 2020. Teaching ESL/EFL listening and speaking, 2nd edn. New York, NY: Routledge.10.4324/9780429203114Search in Google Scholar

Nezlek, John Bruce. 2011. Multilevel modelling for social and personality psychology. London, England: Sage.10.4135/9781446287996Search in Google Scholar

O’Malley, J. Michael & Anna Uhl Chamot. 1990. Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Oxford, Rebecca L. 2017. Teaching and researching language learning strategies. New York, NY: Routledge.10.4324/9781315719146Search in Google Scholar

Pallant, Julie. 2016. SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS, 6th edn. Sydney, NSW: Allen & Unwin.Search in Google Scholar

Pallotti, Gabriele. 2019. An approach to assessing the linguistic difficulty of tasks. Journal of the European Second Language Association 3(1). 58–70. https://doi.org/10.22599/jesla.61.Search in Google Scholar

Pan, Yi-Ching & Yo In’nami. 2015. Relationships between strategy use, listening proficiency level, task type, and scores in an L2 listening test. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics 18(2). 45–77.Search in Google Scholar

Phakiti, Aek. 2016. Test-takers’ performance appraisals, appraisal calibration, and cognitive and metacognitive strategy use. Language Assessment Quarterly 13(2). 75–108. https://doi-org.ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/10.1080/15434303.2016.1154555.10.1080/15434303.2016.1154555Search in Google Scholar

Plosky, Luke. 2019. Language learning strategy instructing: Recent research and future directions. In Anna Uhl Chamot & Vee Harris (eds.), Learning strategy instruction in the language classroom: Issues and implementation, 3–21. Bristol, England: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781788923415-007Search in Google Scholar

Purpura, James E. 1999. Learner strategy use and performance on language tests: A structural equation modeling approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Purpura, James E. 2016. Second and foreign language assessment. Modern Language Journal 100. 190–208. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4413500.10.1111/modl.12308Search in Google Scholar

Rahimi, Muhammad & Lawrence Jun Zhang. 2019. Writing task complexity, students’ motivational beliefs, anxiety and their writing production in English as a second language. Reading and Writing 32(3). 761–786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9887-9.Search in Google Scholar

Raudenbush, Stephen W. & Anthony S. Bryk. 2002. Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Search in Google Scholar

Révész, Andrea, Marije Michel & Roger Gilabert. 2016. Measuring cognitive task demands using dual-task methodology, subjective self-ratings, and expert judgments: A validation study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 38(4). 703–737. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263115000339.Search in Google Scholar

Robinson, Peter. 2015. The cognition hypothesis, second language task demands, and the SSARC model of pedagogic task sequencing. In Martin Bygate (ed.), Domains and directions in the development of TBLT: A decade of plenaries from the international conference, 123–155. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Benjamins.10.1075/tblt.8.04robSearch in Google Scholar

Robinson, Peter & Roger Gilabert. 2007. Task complexity, the cognition hypothesis and second language learning and performance. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 45(3). 161–176. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.2007.007.Search in Google Scholar

Rubin, Joan. 2001. Language learner self-management. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 11(1). 25–37.10.1075/japc.11.1.05rubSearch in Google Scholar

Sasayama, Shoko. 2016. Is a “complex” task really complex? Validating the assumption of cognitive task complexity. Modern Language Journal 100(1). 231–254.10.1111/modl.12313Search in Google Scholar

Sato, Masatoshi & Claudia Dussuel Lam. 2021. Metacognitive instruction with young learners: A case of willingness to communicate, L2 use, and metacognition of oral communication. Language Teaching Research 25(6). 899–921. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211004639.Search in Google Scholar

Sato, Takanori & Timothy Francis McNamara. 2019. What counts in second language oral communication ability? The perspective of linguistic laypersons. Applied Linguistics 40(6). 894–916. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amy032.Search in Google Scholar

Seong, Yuna P. 2014. Strategic competence and L2 speaking assessment. Teachers College, Columbia University Working Papers in TESOL and Applied Linguistics 14(1). 13–24.Search in Google Scholar

Shih, Hui-Chia Judy & Sheng-Hui Cindy Huang. 2020. EFL learners’ metacognitive development in flipped learning: A comparative study. Interactive Learning Environments. 1–13. https://doi-org.ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/10.1080/10494820.2020.1728343.Search in Google Scholar

Skehan, Peter. 2018. Second language task-based performance: Theory, research, assessment. New York, NY: Routledge.10.4324/9781315629766Search in Google Scholar

Sternberg, Robert J. 1985. Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Sun, Peijian Paul & Lawrence Jun Zhang. 2022. Speech competence and speech performance: A dual approach to understanding Chinese-as-a-second language learners’ speech production ability. Journal of Second Language Studies 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1075/jsls.22002.jun.Search in Google Scholar

Sun, Qiyu & Lawrence Jun Zhang. 2022. Examining the effects of English as a foreign language student-writers’ metacognitive experiences on their writing performance. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03416-0.Search in Google Scholar

Sun, Qiyu, Lawrence Jun Zhang & Susan Carter. 2021. Investigating students’ metacognitive experiences: Insights from the English as a foreign language learners’ writing metacognitive experiences questionnaire (EFLLWMEQ). Frontiers in Psychology 12(744842). 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.744842.Search in Google Scholar

Swain, Merrill, Li-Shih Huang, Khaled Barkaoui, Lindsay Brooks & Sharon Lapkin. 2009. The speaking section of the TOEFL ÏBT (SSTiBT): Test-takers’ reported strategic behaviors (TOEFL iBT Research Report No. iBT-10). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.10.1002/j.2333-8504.2009.tb02187.xSearch in Google Scholar

Tabari, Mahmoud Abdi. 2020. Differential effects of strategic planning and task structure on L2 writing outcomes. Reading and Writing Quarterly 36(4). 320–338. https://doi-org.ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/10.1080/10573569.2019.1637310.10.1080/10573569.2019.1637310Search in Google Scholar

Weir, Cyril J. 2005. Language testing and validation: An evidence-based approach. Hampshire, England: Palgrave.Search in Google Scholar

Weir, Cyril J., Barry O’Sullivan & Tomoko Horai. 2006. Exploring difficulty in speaking tasks: An intra-task perspective. IELTS Research Report No. 6. British Council and IDP Australia.Search in Google Scholar

Weng, Fuxing. 2009. The theory and applications of multilevel modelling. Beijing, China: China Light Industry Press.Search in Google Scholar

Xu, Ting Sophia, Lawrence Jun Zhang & Janet S. Gaffney. 2022a. Examining the relative effectiveness of task complexity and cognitive demands on students’ writing in a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 4(2). 483–506. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263121000310.Search in Google Scholar

Xu, Zhiqin, Lawrence Jun Zhang & Judy Parr. 2022b. Incorporating peer feedback in writing instruction: Examining its effects on English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners’ writing performance. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 61(4). 1337–1364. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2021-0078.Search in Google Scholar

Yi, Jong-Il. 2012. Comparing strategic processes in the iBT speaking test and in the academic classroom. Leicester, UK: University of Leicester Doctoral dissertation.Search in Google Scholar

Zhang, Donglan & Lawrence Jun Zhang. 2019. Metacognition and self-regulated learning (SRL) in second/foreign language teaching. In Xuesong Gao (ed.), Second handbook of English language teaching, 883–897. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.10.1007/978-3-030-02899-2_47Search in Google Scholar

Zhang, Limei, Vahid Aryadoust & Jun Zhang Lawrence. 2014. Development and validation of the test takers’ metacognitive awareness reading questionnaire (TMARQ. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 23(1). 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-013-0083-z.Search in Google Scholar

Zhang, Lawrence Jun, Liping Wang & Hongyun Wu. 2017. A meta-analysis of linguistic complexity research (1990–2015) conducted within cognitive linguistics frameworks. Fudan Forum on Foreign Languages and Literature 10(1). 58–69.Search in Google Scholar

Zhang, Limei. 2017. Metacognitive and cognitive strategy use in reading comprehension: A structural equation modelling approach. Singapore: Springer.10.1007/978-981-10-6325-1_3Search in Google Scholar

Zhang, Weiwei, Lawerence Jun Zhang & Aaron John Wilson. 2021. Supporting learner success: Revisiting strategic competence through developing an inventory for computer-assisted speaking assessment. Frontiers in Psychology 12. 689581. 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689581.Search in Google Scholar

Supplementary Material

The online version of this article offers supplementary material (https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2022-0074).

Received: 2022-06-14
Accepted: 2022-09-16
Published Online: 2022-10-24
Published in Print: 2024-05-27

© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Research Articles
  3. Exploring open consonantal environments for at-home testing of vowel perception in advanced L2 speakers
  4. “Writing-to-learn”: the influence of task repetition on CSL writers’ attention to form
  5. Tourism, commodification of Dongba script and perceptions of the Naxi minority in the linguistic landscape of Lijiang: a diachronic perspective
  6. The early the better? Or, the more the merrier? The relative effects of onset age and exposure hours on EFL learners’ implicit and explicit grammatical attainment
  7. Stylistic alignment in natural conversation involving second language speakers
  8. Learner-internal and learner-external factors for boredom amongst Chinese university EFL students
  9. Epistemic positioning by science students and experts: a divide by applied and pure disciplines
  10. Sociocultural influence on engineering students’ collaborative design project: an Activity Theory perspective
  11. Interplay between language and identity: Chinese returnee scholars in the internationalisation of higher education
  12. The pedagogical remit of test preparation: the case of writing acquisition on an IELTS course
  13. Contributions of morphological awareness and lexical inferencing ability to L2 vocabulary knowledge among Chinese EFL learners: a structural equation modeling analysis
  14. Syntactic variation and Pan-Hispanic awareness in teachers of Spanish as a second language
  15. Strategic competence, task complexity, and foreign language learners’ speaking performance: a hierarchical linear modelling approach
  16. Effects of working memory capacity and distance-based complexity on agreement processing: a crosslinguistic competition account
  17. Review Article
  18. Oral corrective feedback on lexical errors: a systematic review
https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2022-0074
Keywords for this article
hierarchy linear modelling; integrated speaking assessment; strategic competence; task complexity

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Research Articles
  3. Exploring open consonantal environments for at-home testing of vowel perception in advanced L2 speakers
  4. “Writing-to-learn”: the influence of task repetition on CSL writers’ attention to form
  5. Tourism, commodification of Dongba script and perceptions of the Naxi minority in the linguistic landscape of Lijiang: a diachronic perspective
  6. The early the better? Or, the more the merrier? The relative effects of onset age and exposure hours on EFL learners’ implicit and explicit grammatical attainment
  7. Stylistic alignment in natural conversation involving second language speakers
  8. Learner-internal and learner-external factors for boredom amongst Chinese university EFL students
  9. Epistemic positioning by science students and experts: a divide by applied and pure disciplines
  10. Sociocultural influence on engineering students’ collaborative design project: an Activity Theory perspective
  11. Interplay between language and identity: Chinese returnee scholars in the internationalisation of higher education
  12. The pedagogical remit of test preparation: the case of writing acquisition on an IELTS course
  13. Contributions of morphological awareness and lexical inferencing ability to L2 vocabulary knowledge among Chinese EFL learners: a structural equation modeling analysis
  14. Syntactic variation and Pan-Hispanic awareness in teachers of Spanish as a second language
  15. Strategic competence, task complexity, and foreign language learners’ speaking performance: a hierarchical linear modelling approach
  16. Effects of working memory capacity and distance-based complexity on agreement processing: a crosslinguistic competition account
  17. Review Article
  18. Oral corrective feedback on lexical errors: a systematic review
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 21.9.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/applirev-2022-0074/html
Scroll to top button