Home A review of sludge production in South Africa municipal wastewater treatment plants, analysis of handling cost and potential minimization methods
Article
Licensed
Unlicensed Requires Authentication

A review of sludge production in South Africa municipal wastewater treatment plants, analysis of handling cost and potential minimization methods

  • Seth Apollo ORCID logo EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: April 20, 2022
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
Physical Sciences Reviews
From the journal Physical Sciences Reviews Volume 8 Issue 11

Abstract

The government of South Africa through the department of water and sanitation has installed numerous activated sludge systems in most of the municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWWTPs) to ensure adequate sanitation. However, secondary sludge generation and handling is a major challenge of the AS process. This work reviews the sludge production potential in selected regions in South Africa including Midvaal, Emfuleni and Lesedi municipalities. Further, the sludge handling cost and potential methods of sludge minimization are discussed. This study found that the selected MWWTPs discharge effluent volume of between 3 and 65 ML/day with average COD of about 350 mg/L leading to sludge production of between 5 and 23 tons/day with an estimated handling cost of €57,000 to €320,000 per year. Some of the technologies reviewed for sludge minimization to cut down plant operation cost include chemical oxidation using ozone and potassium ferrate (K2FeO4), application of oxic-settling-anaerobic (OSA) process, anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (AAO) combined with K2FeO4 oxidation side stream reactor (SSR), SANI® technology and use of anaerobic side stream reactor (ASSR) in the conventional activated sludge (AS) line.

Keywords: anaerobic side stream reactor (ASSR); oxic-settling-anaerobic process; SANI®technology; sludge minimization techniques; waste activated sludge
Corresponding author: Seth Apollo, Department of Chemical Engineering, Vaal University of Technology, Private Bag X21, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa; and Department of Physical Sciences, University of Embu, P.O. Box 6-60100, Embu, Kenya, E-mail:

Funding source: Water Research Commission

Award Identifier / Grant number: C2019/2020-00154

  1. Author contributions: The author has accepted responsibility for the entire content of this submitted manuscript and approved submission.

  2. Research funding: This work was funded by the Water Research Commission South Africa project no C2019/2020-00154.

  3. Conflict of interest statement: The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding this article.

References

1. Alzboon, KK, Radaideh, J, Hung, Y. Municipal wastewater treatment publisher. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co; 2012.10.1142/9789814327701_0027Search in Google Scholar

2. Herbig, FJW. Talking dirty - effluent and sewage irreverence in South Africa: a conservation crime perspective. Cogent Soc Sci 2019;5:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1701359.Search in Google Scholar

3. Teklehaimanot, GZ, Kamika, I, Coetzee, MAA, Momba, MNB. Population growth and its impact on the design capacity and performance of the wastewater treatment plants in Sedibeng and Soshanguve, South Africa. Environ Manag 2015;56:984–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-015-0564-3.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

4. Osuolale, O, Okoh, A. Human enteric bacteria and viruses in five wastewater treatment plants in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. J Infect Publ Health 2017;10:541–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2016.11.012.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

5. Hansen, K. Overview of wastewater treatment in South Africa. Award Tech Rep Ser 2015:63.Search in Google Scholar

6. Wang, Q, Wei, W, Gong, Y, Yu, Q, Li, Q, Sun, J, et al.. Technologies for reducing sludge production in wastewater treatment plants: state of the art. Sci Total Environ 2017;587–588:510–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.203.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

7. Niu, T, Zhou, Z, Shen, X, Qiao, W, Jiang, L, Pan, W. Effects of dissolved oxygen on performance and microbial community structure in a micro-aerobic hydrolysis sludge in situ reduction process. Water Res 2016;90:369–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.12.050.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

8. Snyman, HG. Management of wastewater and faecal sludge in Southern Africa. Water Pract Technol 2007;2. https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2007.089.Search in Google Scholar

9. Friedrich, E, Pillay, S, Buckley, CA. Carbon footprint analysis for increasing water supply and sanitation in South Africa: a case study. J Clean Prod 2009;17:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2008.03.004.Search in Google Scholar

10. Zhen, Z, Qiao, W, Xing, C, Shen, X, Hu, D, Wang, L. A micro-aerobic hydrolysis process for sludge in situ reduction: performance and microbial community structure. Bioresour Technol 2014;173:452–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.09.119.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

11. Iloms, E, Ololade, OO, Ogola, HJO, Selvarajan, R. Investigating industrial effluent impact on municipal wastewater treatment plant in vaal, South Africa. Int J Environ Res Publ Health 2020;17:1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17031096.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

12. Zhang, S, Huang, Z, Lu, S, Zheng, J, Zhang, X. Bioresource Technology Nutrients removal and bacterial community structure for low C/N municipal wastewater using a modified anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (mA2/O) process in North China. Bioresour Technol 2017;243:975–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.07.048.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

13. Demirbas, A, Edris, G, Alalayah, WM. Sludge production from municipal wastewater treatment in sewage treatment plant. Energy Sources, Part A Recover. Util. Environ. Eff. 2017;39:999–1006. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2017.1283551.Search in Google Scholar

14. Badza, T, Tesfamariam, EH, Cogger, CG. Agricultural use suitability assessment and characterization of municipal liquid sludge: based on South Africa survey. Sci Total Environ 2020;721:137658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137658.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

15. Abdel Wahaab, R, Mahmoud, M, van Lier, JB. Toward achieving sustainable management of municipal wastewater sludge in Egypt: the current status and future prospective. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2019;127:109880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109880.Search in Google Scholar

16. Eskicioglu, C, Ã, KJK, Droste, RL. Characterization of soluble organic matter of waste activated sludge before and after thermal pretreatment. Water Res 2006;40:3725–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2006.08.017.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

17. Zhang, Q, Hu, J, Lee, D, Chang, Y, Lee, Y. Sludge treatment: current research trends. Bioresour Technol 2017;243:1159–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.07.070.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

18. Dentel, SK, Qi, Y. Management of sludges, biosolids, and residuals. Compr Water Qual Purif 2013;3:223–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-382182-9.00049-9.Search in Google Scholar

19. Kacprzak, M, Neczaj, E, Grobelak, A, Rorat, A, Brattebo, H, Grosser, A, et al.. Sewage sludge disposal strategies for sustainable development. Environ Res 2017;156:39–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.03.010.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

20. Trzcinski, AP, Tian, X, Wang, C, Lin, LL, Ng, WJ. Combined Ultrasonication and thermal pre-treatment of Waste Activated Sludge to increase biogas production. J Environ Sci Health - Part A Toxic/Hazard Subst Environ Eng 2014;50:213–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2014.975561.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

21. Metcalf, Eddy. Wastewater engineering: treatment and reuse. McGraw-Hill; 2003.Search in Google Scholar

22. Herselman, JE, Steyn, CE, Snyman, HG. Dedicated land disposal of wastewater sludge in South Africa: leaching of trace elements and nutrients. Water Sci Technol 2006;54:139–46. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.556.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

23. Mcgrath, SP, Chaudr, AM, Giller, KE. Long-term effects of metals in sewage sludge on soils, microorganisms and plants. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 1994;14:94–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01569890.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

24. Carolina, M, Cristina, M, Braga, B. Assessment of the accuracy of a method used for quantification of Ascaris eggs in sewage sludge. Mod Environ Sci Eng 2016;2:31–6. https://doi.org/10.15341/mese(2333-2581)/01.02.2016/004.Search in Google Scholar

25. García-Torrent, J, Ramírez-Gómez, Á, Querol-Aragón, E, Grima-Olmedo, C, Medic-Pejic, L. Determination of the risk of self-ignition of coals and biomass materials. J Hazard Mater 2012;213–214:230–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.01.086.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

26. Medic Pejic, L, Fernandez Anez, N, García Torrent, J, Ramírez-Gómez, Á. Determination of spontaneous combustion of thermally dried sewage sludge. J Loss Prev Process Ind 2015;36:352–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2015.01.013.Search in Google Scholar

27. Appels, L, Dewil, R, Baeyens, J, Degre, J. Principles and potential of the anaerobic digestion of waste-activated sludge. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2008;34:755–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2008.06.002.Search in Google Scholar

28. Otieno, B, Apollo, S, Kabuba, J, Naidoo, B, Simate, G, Ochieng, A. Ozonolysis pre-treatment of waste activated sludge for solubilization and biodegradability enhancement. J Environ Chem Eng 2019;7:102945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.102945.Search in Google Scholar

29. Zhang, G, Zhang, P, Yang, J, Chen, Y. Ultrasonic reduction of excess sludge from the activated sludge system. J Hazard Mater 2007;145:515–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.01.133.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

30. Novak, JT, Chon, DH, Curtis, B, Doyle, M. Biological solids reduction using the cannibal process. Water Environ Res 2007;79:2380–6. https://doi.org/10.2175/106143007X183862.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

31. Ferrentino, R, Langone, M, Merzari, F, Tramonte, L. A review of Anaerobic Side-Stream Reactor for excess sludge reduction: configurations, mechanisms and efficiency. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 2015;3389:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2015.1096879.Search in Google Scholar

32. Wang, J, Lu, H, Chen, G, Lau, GN, Tsang, WL, Van Loosdrecht, MCM. A novel sulfate reduction, autotrophic denitrification, nitrification integrated (SANI) process for saline wastewater treatment. Water Res 2009;43:2363–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.02.037.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

33. Wu, D, Ekama, GA, Chui, H-K, Wang, B, Cui, Y-X, Hao, T-W, et al.. Large-scale demonstration of the sulfate reduction autotrophic denitrification nitrification integrated (SANI®) process in saline sewage treatment. Water Res 2016;100:496–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.05.052.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

34. Ye, F, Ji, H, Ye, Y. Effect of potassium ferrate on disintegration of waste activated sludge (WAS). J Hazard Mater 2012;219–220:164–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.03.070.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

35. An, Y, Zhou, Z, Yao, J, Niu, T, Qiu, Z, Ruan, D, et al.. Sludge reduction and microbial community structure in an anaerobic/anoxic/oxic process coupled with potassium ferrate disintegration. Bioresour Technol 2017;245:954–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.09.023.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

36. Wang, Z, Yu, H, Ma, J, Zheng, X, Wu, Z. Recent advances in membrane bio-technologies for sludge reduction and treatment. Biotechnol Adv 2013;31:1187–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.02.004.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

37. Samblante, G, Guo, W, You, S, Price, W, Hai, F, Nghiem, L. Sludge cycling between aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic regimes to reduce sludge production during wastewater treatment: Performance, mechanisms, and implications. Bioresour Technol 2014;155:395–409.10.1016/j.biortech.2014.01.029Search in Google Scholar PubMed

38. Zhou, Z, Xing, C, Wang, Y, Wang, C, Wang, Y, Qiao, W, et al.. Sludge reduction and performance analysis of a modified sludge reduction process. Water Sci Technol 2014;69:934–40. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2013.797.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Published Online: 2022-04-20

© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Reviews
  3. Anticancer properties of arylchromenes and arylchromans: an overview
  4. Solid state lithium ion conductors for lithium batteries
  5. Performance and kinetics of a fluidized bed anaerobic reactor treating distillery effluent
  6. Use of biochemical markers for diabetes prevention in the new decade
  7. Antibreast cancer activities of phytochemicals from Anonna muricata using computer-aided drug design (CADD) approach
  8. Alkaline-earth metal(II) complexes of salinomycin – spectral properties and antibacterial activity
  9. Use of heterogeneous catalysis in sustainable biofuel production
  10. Antibacterial, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of the stem bark of Archidendron jiringa (Jack) I.C. Nielsen
  11. A review of sludge production in South Africa municipal wastewater treatment plants, analysis of handling cost and potential minimization methods
  12. Cu-Catalysed tandem reactions for building poly hetero atom heterocycles-green chemistry tool
  13. Optimizing Cr(VI) adsorption parameters on magnetite (Fe3O4) and manganese doped magnetite (MnxFe(3-x)O4) nanoparticles
  14. Fabaceae: a significant flavonoid source for plant and human health
  15. A novel application of synthesised based squarylium dyes on nylon 6, and silk woven fabrics
  16. Chromatographic characterization of the fusion protein SARS-CoV-2 S protein (RBD)-hFc
  17. Ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and a new chemotaxonomic marker in Oldenlandia affinis (Roem. & Schult.) DC. Rubiaceae
  18. Extraction, isolation and characterization of secondary metabolites in the leaves of Morinda lucida from Oshiegbe in Ebonyi State
  19. Lead optimisation efforts on a molecular prototype of the immunomodulatory parasitic protein ES-62
  20. Catalytic applications of graphene oxide towards the synthesis of bioactive scaffolds through the formation of carbon–carbon and carbon–heteroatom bonds
  21. Synthesis, characterization, DFT and molecular docking studies of acetone O-((2,5-dichlorophenyl)sulfonyl) oxime
  22. Design of membrane systems
  23. Conceptual design and cost-efficient environmentally Benign synthesis of beta-lactams
  24. Synthesis and characterization of alkaloid derived hydrazones and their metal (II) complexes
  25. The spontaneity of chemical reactions: challenges with handling the concept and its implications
  26. Copper nanoparticles catalyzed carbon–heteroatom bond formation and synthesis of related heterocycles by greener procedures
  27. Tellurium in carbohydrate synthesis
  28. Conformational preferences and intramolecular hydrogen bonding patterns of tetraflavaspidic acid BBBB – a tetrameric acylphloroglucinol
  29. Phytochemical and antioxidant studies of Hibiscus Cannabinus seed oil
  30. Polyaniline mediated heterogeneous catalysis in the preparation of heterocyclic derivatives through carbon–heteroatom bond formations
  31. A comparison of two digestion methods and heavy metals determination in sediments
  32. Synthesis, properties and catalysis of quantum dots in C–C and C-heteroatom bond formations
  33. Recyclable magnetically retrievable nanocatalysts for C–heteroatom bond formation reactions
  34. Small molecules as next generation biofilm inhibitors and anti-infective agents
  35. Toxicity of tellurium and its compounds
  36. Biodegradable polycaprolactone (PCL) based polymer and composites
  37. Quality of poultry meat- the practical issues and knowledge based solutions
https://doi.org/10.1515/psr-2021-0234
Keywords for this article
anaerobic side stream reactor (ASSR); oxic-settling-anaerobic process; SANI®technology; sludge minimization techniques; waste activated sludge

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Reviews
  3. Anticancer properties of arylchromenes and arylchromans: an overview
  4. Solid state lithium ion conductors for lithium batteries
  5. Performance and kinetics of a fluidized bed anaerobic reactor treating distillery effluent
  6. Use of biochemical markers for diabetes prevention in the new decade
  7. Antibreast cancer activities of phytochemicals from Anonna muricata using computer-aided drug design (CADD) approach
  8. Alkaline-earth metal(II) complexes of salinomycin – spectral properties and antibacterial activity
  9. Use of heterogeneous catalysis in sustainable biofuel production
  10. Antibacterial, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of the stem bark of Archidendron jiringa (Jack) I.C. Nielsen
  11. A review of sludge production in South Africa municipal wastewater treatment plants, analysis of handling cost and potential minimization methods
  12. Cu-Catalysed tandem reactions for building poly hetero atom heterocycles-green chemistry tool
  13. Optimizing Cr(VI) adsorption parameters on magnetite (Fe3O4) and manganese doped magnetite (MnxFe(3-x)O4) nanoparticles
  14. Fabaceae: a significant flavonoid source for plant and human health
  15. A novel application of synthesised based squarylium dyes on nylon 6, and silk woven fabrics
  16. Chromatographic characterization of the fusion protein SARS-CoV-2 S protein (RBD)-hFc
  17. Ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and a new chemotaxonomic marker in Oldenlandia affinis (Roem. & Schult.) DC. Rubiaceae
  18. Extraction, isolation and characterization of secondary metabolites in the leaves of Morinda lucida from Oshiegbe in Ebonyi State
  19. Lead optimisation efforts on a molecular prototype of the immunomodulatory parasitic protein ES-62
  20. Catalytic applications of graphene oxide towards the synthesis of bioactive scaffolds through the formation of carbon–carbon and carbon–heteroatom bonds
  21. Synthesis, characterization, DFT and molecular docking studies of acetone O-((2,5-dichlorophenyl)sulfonyl) oxime
  22. Design of membrane systems
  23. Conceptual design and cost-efficient environmentally Benign synthesis of beta-lactams
  24. Synthesis and characterization of alkaloid derived hydrazones and their metal (II) complexes
  25. The spontaneity of chemical reactions: challenges with handling the concept and its implications
  26. Copper nanoparticles catalyzed carbon–heteroatom bond formation and synthesis of related heterocycles by greener procedures
  27. Tellurium in carbohydrate synthesis
  28. Conformational preferences and intramolecular hydrogen bonding patterns of tetraflavaspidic acid BBBB – a tetrameric acylphloroglucinol
  29. Phytochemical and antioxidant studies of Hibiscus Cannabinus seed oil
  30. Polyaniline mediated heterogeneous catalysis in the preparation of heterocyclic derivatives through carbon–heteroatom bond formations
  31. A comparison of two digestion methods and heavy metals determination in sediments
  32. Synthesis, properties and catalysis of quantum dots in C–C and C-heteroatom bond formations
  33. Recyclable magnetically retrievable nanocatalysts for C–heteroatom bond formation reactions
  34. Small molecules as next generation biofilm inhibitors and anti-infective agents
  35. Toxicity of tellurium and its compounds
  36. Biodegradable polycaprolactone (PCL) based polymer and composites
  37. Quality of poultry meat- the practical issues and knowledge based solutions
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 22.9.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/psr-2021-0234/html
Scroll to top button