Abstract
Electron beam (EB) processing of pristine and filled polymeric materials is considered as one of the most viable techniques in the development of three-dimensional (3D) network structures of polymeric or composite systems with improved physical and chemical properties. The grafting, or the crosslinking process induced by the merging of the macro free radicals generated during the electron beam modification without the aid of any chemical agent or heat, is responsible for the formation of the 3D networks in polymeric systems. Owing to its distinct advantages such as fast, clean and precise, electron beam (EB) radiation technology takes up a vital role in the crosslinking of polymeric compounds. However, during the course of electron beam treatment of polymers, two processes viz., crosslinking and chain scission take place simultaneously, depending on the level of radiation dose used for the processing. The present paper reviews the role of irradiation dose in the presence and absence of radiation sensitizer on the crosslinking and structure formation in a wide variety of soft matrices such as elastomers, latexes, thermoplastic elastomers and their respective filled systems. Notable improvements in mechanical and dynamic mechanical properties, thermal stability, processing characteristics, etc., of the EB processed elastomers and their composites are discussed elaborately in the paper. Specially, the property improvements observed in the EB processed pristine and filled rubbers in comparison to the conventional crosslinking technology are critically reviewed. The level of radiation dose inducing crosslinking in both pristine and filled rubbers, determined by calculating crosslink to scission ratio on the basis of Charlesby–Pinner equation is also discussed in the paper. Finally, the application aspects of electron beam curing technology with special emphasis to cable and sealing industries as developed by one of the authors are highlighted in the paper.
Acknowledgements
One of the authors (AKB) is grateful to Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Department of Atomic Energy, Mumbai for sponsoring a number of projects to him at IIT Kharagpur over 30 years for carrying out research on applications of electron beam technology in the field of polymers, NICCO Corporation for a joint program on the development of products using electron beam technology, to IIT Kharagpur for providing research facilities and numerous students of AKB who devoted their time on electron beam application research. The help received from Dr. Dinesh Kotnees, IIT Patna in drawing Figure 3 is acknowledged. His other innovations as a part of the award, not mentioned here, were supported by many companies and Government funding agencies. AKB would like to express his heartfelt thanks and gratitude to Polymer Processing Society, for recognizing the innovative work and selecting him for the James L. White Innovation award. AKB also greatly appreciates the support and cooperation of Professor Sati Nath Bhattacharya, RMIT, Australia, Professor Avraam I. Isayev, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio and Professor Eric Baer, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio.
-
Author contributions: All the authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this submitted manuscript and approved submission.
-
Research funding: None declared.
-
Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding this article.
References
Ahmed, J., Wu, J., Mushtaq, S., and Zhang, Y. (2020). Effects of electron beam irradiation and multi-functional monomer/co-agents on the mechanical and thermal properties of ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer/polyamide blends. Mater. Today Commun. 23: 100840, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2019.100840.Search in Google Scholar
Akhtar, S., De, P.P., and De, S.K. (1986). Tensile failure of γ-ray irradiated blends of high-density polyethylene and natural rubber. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 32: 4169–4183, https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1986.070320330.Search in Google Scholar
Assink, R.A. (1985). Radiation crosslinking of polyurethanes. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 30: 2701–2705, https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1985.070300634.Search in Google Scholar
Baker-Jarvis, J. and Kim, S. (2012). The interaction of radio-frequency fields with dielectric materials at macroscopic and mesoscopic scales. J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. 117: 1–60, https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.117.001.Search in Google Scholar
Banhart, F. (2006). Irradiation of carbon nanotubes with a focused electron beam in the electron microscope. J. Mater. Sci. 41: 4505–4511, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0081-0.Search in Google Scholar
Banhart, F. (2001). The formation of the connection between carbon nanotubes in an electron beam. Nano Lett. 1: 329–332, https://doi.org/10.1021/nl015541g.Search in Google Scholar
Banhart, F., Li, J.X., and Terrones, M. (2005). Cutting single-walled carbon nanotubes with an electron beam: evidence for atom migration inside nanotubes. Small 1: 953–956, https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.200500162.Search in Google Scholar
Banik, I., Dutta, S.K., Chaki, T.K., and Bhowmick, A.K. (1999a). Electron beam induced structural modification of a fluorocarbon elastomer in the presence of polyfunctional monomers. Polymer 40: 447–458, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-3861(98)00244-4.Search in Google Scholar
Banik, I. and Bhowmick, A.K. (1999b). Influence of electron beam irradiation on the mechanical properties and crosslinking of fluorocarbon elastomer. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 54: 135–142, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-806X(98)00218-7.Search in Google Scholar
Banik, I. and Bhowmick, A.K. (2000). Electron beam modification of filled fluorocarbon rubber. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 76: 2016–2025.10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(20000628)76:14<2016::AID-APP4>3.0.CO;2-0Search in Google Scholar
Basak, G.C., Bandyopadhyay, A., Bharadwaj, Y.K., Sabharwal, S., and Bhowmick, A.K. (2008). Adhesion of vulcanized rubber surfaces: characterization of unmodified and electron beam modified EPDM surfaces and their co-vulcanization with natural rubber. J. Adhesion Sci. Technol. 23: 1763–1786, https://doi.org/10.1163/016942409X12489445844471.Search in Google Scholar
Basak, G.C., Bandyopadhyay, A., Bharadwaj, Y.K., Sabharwal, S., and Bhowmick, A.K. (2010). Characterization of EPDM vulcanizates modified with gamma irradiation and trichloroisocyanuric acid and their adhesion behaviour with natural rubber. J. Adhesion 86: 306–334, https://doi.org/10.1080/00218460903479305.Search in Google Scholar
Basak, G.C., Bandyopadhyay, A., Neogi, S., and Bhowmick, A.K. (2011). Surface modification of argon/oxygen plasma treated vulcanized ethylene propylene diene polymethylene surfaces for improved adhesion with natural rubber. Appl. Surf. Sci. 257: 2891–2904, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2010.10.087.Search in Google Scholar
Basedow, A.M. and Ebert, K.H. (2006). Ultrasonic degradation of polymers in solution. Adv. Polym. Sci. 22: 83–148, https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-07942-4_6.Search in Google Scholar
Becker, R.C., Bly, J.H., Cleland, M.R., and Farrell, J.P. (1977). Accelerator requirements for electron beam processing. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 14: 353, https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-5724(79)90075-X.Search in Google Scholar
Bee, S.–T., Sin, L., Hoe, T., Ratnam, C., Bee, S., and Rahmat, A. (2018). Study of montmorillonite nanoparticles and electron beam irradiation interaction of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)/de-vulcanized waste rubber thermoplastic composites. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B 423: 97–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nimb.2018.03.013.Search in Google Scholar
Behnisch, J., Hollander, A., and Zimmermann, H. (1993). Surface modification of polyethylene by remote dc discharge plasma treatment. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 49: 117–124, https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1993.070490114.Search in Google Scholar
Bhowmick, A.K. and Mangaraj, D. (1994). Vulcanization and curing techniques. In: Bhowmick, A.K., Hall, M.M., and Benarey, H.A. (Eds.), Rubber products manufacturing technology. Marcel Dekker, New York, p. 363.10.1201/9780203740378-6Search in Google Scholar
Bhowmick, A.K. and Stephens, H.L. (2001). Handbook of elastomers, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA.Search in Google Scholar
Bhowmick, A.K. and Vijayabaskar, V. (2006). Electron beam curing of elastomers. Rubber Chem. Technol. 79: 402–428, https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3547944.Search in Google Scholar
Billon, N., Haudin, J.M., Vallot, C., and Babin, C. (2012). Stretch blow molding of mineral filled PET. Key Eng. Mater. 504–506: 1099–1104, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.504-506.1099.Search in Google Scholar
Bohm, G.G.A. and Tveekrem, J.O. (1982). The radiation chemistry of elastomers and its applications. Rubber Chem. Technol. 55: 578–668, https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3535898.Search in Google Scholar
Bordival, M., Le Maoult, Y., and Schmidt, F. (2009). Optimization of preform temperature distribution for the stretch-blow molding of PET: infrared heating and blow modelling. Polym. Eng. Sci. 49: 783–793, https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.21296.Search in Google Scholar
Brewis, D. and Briggs, M.D. (1981). Adhesion to polyethylene and polypropylene. Polymer 22: 7–16, https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(81)90068-9.Search in Google Scholar
Briggs, D., Brewis, D.M., and Konieczko, M.B. (1979). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy studies of polymer surfaces. J. Mater. Sci. 14: 1344–1348, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00549306.Search in Google Scholar
Cardoso, E.C.L., Lugao, A.B., Andrade, E., and Silva, L.G. (1998). Crosslinked polyethylene foams, via EB radiation. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 52: 197–200, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-806X(98)00139-X.Search in Google Scholar
Charlesby, A. (1952). Cross-linking of polythene by pile radiation. Proc. R. Soc. A Mater. Phys. Eng. Sci. 215: 187–214, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1952.0206.Search in Google Scholar
Charlesby, A. (1991). The effects of ionising radiation on polymers. In: Clegg, D.W. and Collyer, A.A. (Eds.), Irradiation effects on polymers. Elsevier, New York, USA.Search in Google Scholar
Charlesby, A. and Lawler, J.P. (1980). Grafting of acrylic acid on to polyethylene using radiation as initiator. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 15: 595–602, https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-5724(80)90200-9.Search in Google Scholar
Chattopadhyay, S., Chaki, T.K., and Bhowmick, A.K. (2001a). New thermoplastic elastomers from poly(ethyleneoctene) (engage), poly (ethylene-vinyl acetate) and low-density polyethylene by electron beam technology: structural characterization and mechanical properties. Rubber Chem. Technol. 74: 815–833.10.5254/1.3547655Search in Google Scholar
Chattopadhyay, S., Chaki, T.K., and Bhowmick, A.K. (2001b). Development of new thermoplastic elastomers from blends of polyethylene and ethylene–vinyl acetate copolymer by electron-beam technology. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 79: 1877–1889, https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4628(20010307)79:10<1877::AID-APP170>3.0.CO;2-B.10.1002/1097-4628(20010307)79:10<1877::AID-APP170>3.0.CO;2-BSearch in Google Scholar
Chirinos, H., Yoshii, F., Makuuchi, K., and Lugao, A. (2003). Radiation vulcanization of natural rubber latex using 250 keV electron beam machine. Nuclear Inst. Method. Phys. Res. 208: 256–259, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-583X(03)01114-5.Search in Google Scholar
Clough, R.L. (2001). High-energy radiation and polymers: a review of commercial processes and emerging applications. Nuclear Inst. Methods Phys. Res Sec. B Beam Interact. Matter. Atoms 185: 8–33, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-583X(01)00966-1.Search in Google Scholar
Clough, R.L. and Shalaby, S.W. (1996). Irradiation of polymers: Fundamentals and technological applications. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, USA.10.1021/bk-1996-0620Search in Google Scholar
Crivello, J.V. and Lam, J.H.W. (1977). Diaryliodonium salts: a new class of photoinitiators for cationic polymerization. Macromolecules 10: 1307–1315, https://doi.org/10.1021/ma60060a028.Search in Google Scholar
Czvikovszky, T. (2003). Expected and unexpected achievements and trends in radiation processing of polymers. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 67: 434–440, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-806X(03)00081-1.Search in Google Scholar
Daview, I.M. and McQue, B. (1970). Measurement of depth-dose distribution in electron irradiated materials. Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 21: 283, https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-708X(70)90052-9.Search in Google Scholar
Delollis, N.J. (1973). The use of radio-frequency activated gas treatment to improve bondability. Rubber Chem. Technol. 46: 549–554, https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3542926.Search in Google Scholar
Drobny, J.G. (2005). Paper # 29 presented in 167th spring Technical meeting of rubber division. ACS, San Antanio, Texas, USA.Search in Google Scholar
Esumi, K., Schwartzz, A.M., and Zettlemoyer, A.C. (1983). Effects of ultraviolet radiation on polymer surfaces. J. Colloid Polym. Sci. 95: 102–107, https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9797(83)90077-2.Search in Google Scholar
Fifield, L.S., Pharr, M., Staack, D., Pillai, S.D., Nichols, L., McCoy, J., Faucette, T., Bisel, T.T., Huang, M., Hasan, M.K., et al.. (2021a). Direct comparison of gamma, electron beam and X-ray irradiation doses on characteristics of low-density polyethylene, polypropylene homopolymer, polyolefin elastomer and chlorobutyl rubber medical device polymers. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 186: 109505, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2021.109505.Search in Google Scholar
Fifield, L.S., Pharr, M., Staack, D., Pillai, S.D., Nichols, L., McCoy, J., Faucette, T., Bisel, T.T., Huang, M., Hasan, M.K., et al.. (2021b). Direct comparison of gamma, electron beam and X-ray irradiation effects on single-use blood collection devices with plastic components. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 180: 109282, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2020.109282.Search in Google Scholar
Frounchi, M., Dadbin, S., and Panahinia, F. (2006). Comparison between electron-beam and chemical crosslinking of silicone rubber. Nuclear Inst. Method. Phys. Res. 243: 354–358, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nimb.2005.09.013.Search in Google Scholar
Galindo, B., Benedito, A., Ramos, F., and Gimenez, E. (2016). Microwave heating of polymers: influence of carbon nanotube dispersion on the microwave susceptor effectiveness. Polym. Eng. Sci. 56: 1321–1329, https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.24365.Search in Google Scholar
Gancarz, I., Pozniak, G., Bryjak, M., and Frankiewicz, A. (1999). Modification of polysulfone membrane. 2. Plasma grafting and plasma polymerization of acrylic acid. Acta Polym. 50: 317–326, https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1521-4044(19990901)50:93.0.CO;2-Q.10.1002/(SICI)1521-4044(19990901)50:9<317::AID-APOL317>3.0.CO;2-QSearch in Google Scholar
Geisler, M., Pal, T.S., and Lederer, A. (2021). Impact of electron beam irradiation on thermoplastic polyurethanes unraveled by thermal field-flow fractionation. Polym. Degradat. Stab. 183: 109423, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2020.109423.Search in Google Scholar
George, J.J. and Bhowmick, A.K. (2008). Fabrication and properties of ethylene vinyl acetate-carbon nanofiber nanocomposites. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 3: 508–515, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11671-008-9188-3.Search in Google Scholar
George, W.T. (1962). US Patent 3,018,189.Search in Google Scholar
Glaister, F.J. (1987). US Patent 4,637,955.Search in Google Scholar
Haque, M.E., Dafader, N.C., Akhtar, F., and Ahmad, M.U. (1996). Radiation dose required for the vulcanization of natural rubber latex. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 48: 505–510, https://doi.org/10.1016/0969-806X(96)00002-3.Search in Google Scholar
Harvey, Y., Rajbenboch, L.A., and Jagur-Grodzinski, J. (1984). Grafting of acrylamide to nylon-6 by the electron beam preirradiation technique: 3. Degree of crystallinity at high grafting yields. Polymer 25: 1431–1435, https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(84)90105-8.Search in Google Scholar
Hofmann, W. (1989). Rubber technology handbook. Hanser, Munich, Germany.Search in Google Scholar
Holmberg, S., Lehtinen, T., Näsman, J., Ostrovskii, D., Paronen, M., Serimaa, R., Sundholm, F., Sundholm, G., Torell, L., and Torkkeli, M. (1996). Structure and properties of sulfonated [(poly vinylidene fluoride)-g-styrene] porous membranes. J. Mat. Chem. 6: 1309–1317, https://doi.org/10.1039/JM9960601309.Search in Google Scholar
Hossain, K.M.Z. and Chowdhury, A.M.S. (2010). Grafting of n-butyl acrylate with natural rubber latex film by gamma radiation: a reaction mechanism. Daffodil Int. Univ. J. Sci. Technol. 5: 81–88.10.3329/diujst.v5i1.4386Search in Google Scholar
Ivanov, V.S. (1992). Radiation chemistry of polymers. VSP Publishers, Utrecht, The Netherlands.Search in Google Scholar
Jonsen, B. (1987). Chemical modification of polyurethanes by radiation-induced grafting. J. Biomater. Appl. 1: 502–532, https://doi.org/10.1177/088532828600100305.Search in Google Scholar
Katbab, A.A., Burford, R.P., and Garnett, J.L. (1992). Radiation graft modification of EPDM rubber. Int. J. Radiat. Appl. Instrum. C Radiat. Phys. Chem. 39: 293–302, https://doi.org/10.1016/1359-0197(92)90156-A.Search in Google Scholar
Kawashima, C., Ogasawara, S., Tanaka, I., and Koga, Y. (1986). Ger Patent 3,524,370.Search in Google Scholar
Kondo, M. and Dole, M. (1966). Radiation chemistry of isotactic and atactic polypropylene. III. Radiolysis in the presence of nitrous oxide. J. Phys. Chem. 70: 883–889, https://doi.org/10.1021/j100875a044.Search in Google Scholar
Kreidl, W.H. (1953). US Patent 2,632,921.Search in Google Scholar
Levine, H., McLaughlin, W.L., and Miller, A. (1979). Temperature and humidity effects on the gamma-ray response and stability of plastic and dyed plastic dosimeters. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 14: 551, https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-5724(79)90091-8.Search in Google Scholar
Lionetto, F. and Maffezzoli, A. (2009). Polymer characterization by ultrasonic wave propagation. Adv. Polym. Technol. 27: 63–73, https://doi.org/10.1002/adv.20124.Search in Google Scholar
Lunkwitz, K., Brink, H.J., Handte, D., and Ferse, A. (1989). The radiation degradation of polytetrafluoroethylene resulting in low molecular and functionalized perfluorinated compounds. Int. J. Radiat. Appl. Instrum. Part C 33: 523–532, https://doi.org/10.1016/1359-0197(89)90309-3.Search in Google Scholar
Majumder, P.S. and Bhowmick, A.K. (2000). Structure–property relationship of electron-beam-modified EPDM rubber. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 77: 323–337, https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(20000711)77:2<323::AID-APP8>3.0.CO;2-V.10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(20000711)77:2<323::AID-APP8>3.0.CO;2-VSearch in Google Scholar
Majumder, P.S. and Bhowmick, A.K. (1998a). Surface- and bulk-properties of EPDM rubber modified by electron beam irradiation. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 53: 63–78, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-806X(97)00296-X.Search in Google Scholar
Majumder, P.S. and Bhowmick, A.K. (1997). Influence of the concentration of trimethylol propane triacrylate on the electron beam-induced surface modification of EPDM rubber. J. Adhesion Sci. Technol. 11: 1321–1342, https://doi.org/10.1163/156856197X00165.Search in Google Scholar
Majumder, P.S. and Bhowmick, Anil K. (1998b). Electron beam-initiated surface modification of elastomers. J. Adhesion Sci. Technol. 12: 831–856, https://doi.org/10.1163/156856198X00335.Search in Google Scholar
Majumder, P.S. and Bhowmick, A.K. (1998c). Friction behaviour of electron beam modified ethylene–propylene diene monomer rubber surface. Wear 221: 15–23, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1648(98)00255-5.Search in Google Scholar
Makkuchi, K. (1999). Role of radiation processing in materials science applications. KACST, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.Search in Google Scholar
Makuuchi, K., Yoshi, F., and Gunewardena, J.A.G.S.G. (1995). Radiation vulcanization of natural rubber latex with low energy electron beams. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 46: 979–982, https://doi.org/10.1016/0969-806X(95)00304-G.Search in Google Scholar
McGinnise, V.D. (1986). Crosslinking with radiation. In Encyclopedia of polymer science and engineering, Kroschwitz, J.I., editor-in-chief. Wiley, New York, p. 418.Search in Google Scholar
Mitra, S., Chattopadhyay, S., Bharadwaj, Y.K., Sabharwal, S., and Bhowmick, A.K. (2008). Effect of electron beam-cross-linked gels on the rheological properties of raw natural rubber. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 77: 630–642, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2007.10.006.Search in Google Scholar
Mitra, S., Chattopadhyay, S., Sabharwal, S., and Bhowmick, A.K. (2010). Electron beam crosslinked gels-preparation, characterization and their effect on the mechanical, dynamic mechanical and rheological properties of rubbers. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 79: 289–296, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2009.09.009.Search in Google Scholar
Mohammed, S.A.H. and Walker, J. (1986). Application of electron beam radiation technology in tire manufacturing. Rubber Chem. Technol. 59: 482–496, https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3538211.Search in Google Scholar
Neuberg, N.W., Poszmik, G., and Sui, M. (1999). US Patent 5,891,573.Search in Google Scholar
Permana, A.A., Chirasatitsin, S., and Putson, C. (2020). Electron-beam irradiation for boosting storage energy density of tuned poly (vinylidene fluoride-hexaflouropropylene)/graphene nanoplatelet polymer composites. Crystals 10: 633, https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst10080633.Search in Google Scholar
Poncil-Epaillard, F., Chevet, B., and Brosse, J.C. (1994). Modification of isotactic polypropylene by a cold plasma or an electron beam and grafting of the acrylic acid onto these activated polymers. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 53: 1291–1306, https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1994.070531003.Search in Google Scholar
Rabe, J.G., Bischoff, G., and Schmidt, W.F. (1989). Electrical conductivity of polypyrrol-films as affected by adsorption of vapors. J. Appl. Phys. 28: 518–523, https://doi.org/10.1143/JJAP.28.518.Search in Google Scholar
Ramamurthi, S.S., Bapna, S.C., Soni, H.C., and Kotaiah, K. (1982). Proceedings of the Indo-USSR seminar on industrial applications of electron accelerator, November 1–3, Vol. 2. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India, p. 53.Search in Google Scholar
Ray, S. and Bhowmick, A.K. (2002). Novel electron beam-modified surface-coated silica fillers: physical and chemical characteristics. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 83: 2255–2268, https://doi.org/10.1002/app.10240.Search in Google Scholar
Ray, S., Bhowmick, A.K., Sharma, K.S.S., Majali, A.B., and Tikku, V.K. (2002). Characterization of electron-beam-modified surface coated clay fillers and their influence on physical properties of rubbers. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 65: 627–640, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-806X(01)00470-4.Search in Google Scholar
Rosenstein, M. and Silverman, J. (1972). Electron depth-dose distribution measurements in finite polystyrene slabs. J. Appl. Phys. 43: 3191, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1661684.Search in Google Scholar
Rossman, K. (1956). Improvement of bonding properties of polyethylene. J. Polym. Sci. 19: 141–144, https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1956.120199114.Search in Google Scholar
Sabarinah, Y., Sundardi, S.F., and Kuncoro, A.H. (1990). Radiation vulcanization of natural rubber latex using a combination of monofunctional acrylic monomer and CCl4. Int. J. Radiat. Appl. Instrument. Part C Radiat. Phys. Chem. 36: 815, https://doi.org/10.1016/1359-0197(90)90184-J.Search in Google Scholar
Sadhu, S. and Bhowmick, A.K. (2004). Preparation and properties of nanocomposites based on acrylonitrile–butadiene rubber, styrene–butadiene rubber, and polybutadiene rubber. J. Polym. Sci. Part B Polym. Phys. 42: 1573–1585, https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.20036.Search in Google Scholar
Samantha, S., Sooriyarachi Makuuchi, K., Yoahii, F., and Ishigaki, I. (1989). “Radiation vulcanization of NR latex with 3 MeV electron beams” (Part 2). In: Proceedings of international symposium on radiation vulcanization of natural rubber latex, JAERI-M, Vol. 368, pp. 89–228.Search in Google Scholar
Schonhorn, H. and Hansen, R.H. (1967). Surface treatment of polymers for adhesive bonding. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 11: 1461–1474, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2004.04.033.Search in Google Scholar
Shanmugharaj, A.M. and Bhowmick, A.K. (2002). Modification of dual phase filler by electron beam irradiation: physical characterization. Rubber Chem. Technol. 75: 605–616, https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3544987.Search in Google Scholar
Shanmugharaj, A.M., Sabharwal, S., Majali, A.B., Tikku, V.K., and Bhowmick, A.K. (2002). Surface characterization of electron beam modified dual phase filler by ESCA, FT-IR and surface energy. J. Mater. Sci. 37: 2781–2793, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015837620811.10.1023/A:1015837620811Search in Google Scholar
Shanmugharaj, A.M. and Bhowmick, A.K. (2003). Influence of novel electron beam modified surface treated dual phase filler on rheometric and mechanical properties of styrene butadiene rubber vulcanizates. Rubber Chem. Technol. 76: 299–317, https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3547744.Search in Google Scholar
Shin, I.H., Hong, S., Lim, S.J., Son, Y.–K., and Kim, T.–H. (2017). Surface modification of PVDF membrane by radiation-induced graft polymerization for novel membrane bioreactor. J. Indust. Eng. Chem. 46: 103–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.10.020.Search in Google Scholar
Smirnov, Y.N., Allayarov, S.R., Lesnichaya, V.A., Ol’khov, Y.A., Belov, G.P., and Dixon, D.A. (2009). The effect of gamma-radiation on polymer composites based on thermoplastic matrices. High Energy Chem. 43: 1–5, https://doi.org/10.1134/S001814390906006X.Search in Google Scholar
Sreekanth, P.S.R., Kumar, N.N., and Kanagaraj, S. (2012). Improving post irradiation stability of high density polyethylene by multi walled carbon nanotubes. Compos. Sci. Technol. 72: 390–396, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2011.11.031.Search in Google Scholar
Stojilovic, N., Dordevic, S.V., and Stojadinovic, S. (2017). Effects of clinical X-ray irradiation on UHMWPE films. Nuclear Inst. Method. Phys. Res. B 410: 139–143, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nimb.2017.08.023.Search in Google Scholar
Tikku, V.K. (2009). Electron beam crosslinking of rubbers and its applications. In: Presented at the 5th international conference, exhibition and reverse buyer–seller meet, India Rubber Expo., January, 28–31, Kolkata, India.Search in Google Scholar
Tikku, V.K., Bhattacharya, S., Sabharwal, S., and Bhowmick, A.K. (2003). Unpublished reports. NICCO Corporation Ltd., Calcutta, BARC, Mumbai and IIT Kharagpur, India.Search in Google Scholar
van Ooij, W.J., Zhang, N., Guo, S., and Luo, S. (1998). Paper presented at functional fillers and fibers for Plastics’98. June 15–17, Beijing, PRC.Search in Google Scholar
Valdis, K., Ingars, R., Janis, Z., Remo, M.–M., Juris, B., and Ivans, B. (2014). Radiation-chemically modified PP/CNT composites. e-Polymers 14: 259–265, https://doi.org/10.1515/epoly-2013-0092.Search in Google Scholar
Vasile, C. and Butnaru, E. (2017). Chapter #5, Radiation chemistry of organic solids. In: Sun, Y., and Chmielewski, A.G. (Eds.), Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing. Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Warszawa, pp. 117–140.Search in Google Scholar
Vidaurre, E.F.C., Achete, C.A., Gallo, F., Garcia, D., Simäo, R., and Habert, A.C. (2002). Surface modification of polymeric materials by plasma treatment. Mater. Res. 5: 37–41, https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-14392002000100006.Search in Google Scholar
Vijayabaskar, V. and Bhowmick, A.K. (2004). Electron-beam modification of nitrile rubber in the presence of polyfunctional monomers. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 95: 435–447, https://doi.org/10.1002/app.21256.Search in Google Scholar
Vijayabaskar, V., Costa, F.R., and Bhowmick, A.K. (2004). Influence of electron beam irradiation as one of the mixed crosslinking systems on the structure and properties of nitrile rubber. Rubber Chem. Technol. 77: 624–645, https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3547841.Search in Google Scholar
Vijayabaskar, V., Stephan, M., Kalaivani, S., Volke, S., Heinrich, G., Dorschner, H., Bhowmick, A.K., and Wagenknecht, U. (2008). Influence of radiation temperature on the crosslinking of nitrile rubber by electron beam irradiation. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 77: 511–521, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2007.09.011.Search in Google Scholar
Wolf, S., Görl, U., Wang, M.-J., and Wolf, W. (1994). Silica-based tread compounds. Eur. Rubber J. 16–19: 176.Search in Google Scholar
Wolff, S., Wang, M.J., and Tan, E.H. (1993). Filler-elastomer interactions. Part VII. Study on bound rubber. Rubber Chem. Technol. 66: 163–177, https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3538304.Search in Google Scholar
Woo, L. and Sandford, C.L. (2002). Comparison of electron beam radiation with gamma processing for medical packaging materials. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 63: 845–850, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-806X(01)00664-8.Search in Google Scholar
Yao, Y., Pan, Y., and Liu, S. (2020). Power ultrasound and its applications: a state-of-the-art review. Ultrasonics Sonochem 62: 104722, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2019.104722.Search in Google Scholar
Yue, E.F., Xia, Z., Xuewu, G., and Tianyi, S. (1997). Radiation graft copolymerization of 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate onto poly (γ-methyl-l-glutamate) membrane. Study of regularity of graft copolymerization in aqueous solution. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 49: 589–593, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-806X(96)00193-4.Search in Google Scholar
Yuzvinsky, T.D., Fennimore, A.M., Mickelson, W., Esquivias, C., and Zettl, A. (2005). Precision cutting of nanotubes with a low-energy electron beam. Appl. Phys. Lett. 86: 053109, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1857081.Search in Google Scholar
Zaiser, M. and Banhart, F. (1997). Radiation-induced transformation of graphite to diamond. Phys. Rev. Lett. 79: 3680–3683, https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.79.3680.Search in Google Scholar
© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Review Articles
- Electron beam processing of rubbers and their composites
- A review on graphene/rubber nanocomposites
- Recent advances on melt-spun fibers from biodegradable polymers and their composites
- Research Articles
- Toughened poly(butylene succinate)/polylactide/poly(vinyl acetate) ternary blend without sacrificing the strength
- Investigation on the sealing performance of polymers at ultra high pressures
- Effect mechanism of acidification and vulcanization on SBS-modified asphalt
- Effects of blending poly(lactic acid) and thermoplastic polyester polyurethanes on the mechanical and adhesive properties in two-component injection molding
- Mechanical and morphological characterization of sisal/kenaf/pineapple mat reinforced hybrid composites
- News
- PPS News
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Review Articles
- Electron beam processing of rubbers and their composites
- A review on graphene/rubber nanocomposites
- Recent advances on melt-spun fibers from biodegradable polymers and their composites
- Research Articles
- Toughened poly(butylene succinate)/polylactide/poly(vinyl acetate) ternary blend without sacrificing the strength
- Investigation on the sealing performance of polymers at ultra high pressures
- Effect mechanism of acidification and vulcanization on SBS-modified asphalt
- Effects of blending poly(lactic acid) and thermoplastic polyester polyurethanes on the mechanical and adhesive properties in two-component injection molding
- Mechanical and morphological characterization of sisal/kenaf/pineapple mat reinforced hybrid composites
- News
- PPS News