Analytical and therapeutic profiles of DNA methylation alterations in cancer; an overview of changes in chromatin arrangement and alterations in histone surfaces

References

1. Bird, A. DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory. Genes Dev 2002;16:6–21. https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.947102.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

2. Pfeifer, GP, Besaratinia, A. Mutational spectra of human cancer. Hum Genet 2009;125:493–506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-009-0657-2.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

3. Jones, S, Zhang, X, Parsons, DW, Lin, JC-H, Leary, RJ, Angenendt, P, et al.. Core signaling pathways in human pancreatic cancers revealed by global genomic analyses. Science 2008;321:1801–6. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1164368.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

4. De Smet, C, Lurquin, C, Lethé, B, Martelange, V, Boon, T. DNA methylation is the primary silencing mechanism for a set of germ line-and tumor-specific genes with a CpG-rich promoter. Mol Cell Biol 1999;19:7327–35. https://doi.org/10.1128/mcb.19.11.7327.Search in Google Scholar

5. Stearns, V, Zhou, Q, Davidson, NE. Epigenetic regulation as a new target for breast cancer therapy. Cancer Invest 2007;25:659–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/07357900701719234.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

6. Vahidi, S, Norollahi, SE, Agah, S, Samadani, AA. DNA methylation profiling of hTERT gene alongside with the telomere performance in gastric adenocarcinoma. J Gastrointest Cancer 2020;51:788–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12029-020-00427-7.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

7. Ramim, T, Mousavi, SQ, Rosatmnia, L, Bazyar, A, Ghanbari, V. Student knowledge of Testicular cancer and self-examination in a medical sciences University in Iran. Basic Clin Cancer Res 2014;6:7–11.Search in Google Scholar

8. Lo, P-K, Sukumar, S. Epigenomics and breast cancer. Pharmacogenomics 2008;9:1879–902. https://doi.org/10.2217/14622416.9.12.1879.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

9. Frigola, J, Song, J, Stirzaker, C, Hinshelwood, RA, Peinado, MA, Clark, SJ. Epigenetic remodeling in colorectal cancer results in coordinate gene suppression across an entire chromosome band. Nat Genet 2006;38:540–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1781.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

10. Hsiao, Y-H, Chou, M-C, Fowler, C, Mason, JT, Man, Y-g. Breast cancer heterogeneity: mechanisms, proofs, and implications. J Cancer 2010;1:6. https://doi.org/10.7150/jca.1.6.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

11. Novak, P, Jensen, T, Oshiro, MM, Wozniak, RJ, Nouzova, M, Watts, GS, et al.. Epigenetic inactivation of the HOXA gene cluster in breast cancer. Cancer Res 2006;66:10664–70. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-2761.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

12. Ito, K, Barnes, PJ, Adcock, IM. Glucocorticoid receptor recruitment of histone deacetylase 2 inhibits interleukin-1β-induced histone H4 acetylation on lysines 8 and 12. Mol Cell Biol 2000;20:6891–903. https://doi.org/10.1128/mcb.20.18.6891-6903.2000.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

13. Schübeler, D, MacAlpine, DM, Scalzo, D, Wirbelauer, C, Kooperberg, C, van Leeuwen, F, et al.. The histone modification pattern of active genes revealed through genome-wide chromatin analysis of a higher eukaryote. Genes Dev 2004;18:1263–71. https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.1198204.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

14. Xu, D, Bai, J, Duan, Q, Costa, M, Dai, W. Covalent modifications of histones during mitosis and meiosis. Cell Cycle 2009;8:3688–94. https://doi.org/10.4161/cc.8.22.9908.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

15. Wade, PA. Transcriptional control at regulatory checkpoints by histone deacetylases: molecular connections between cancer and chromatin. Hum Mol Genet 2001;10:693–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/10.7.693.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

16. Forsberg, EC, Bresnick, EH. Histone acetylation beyond promoters: long‐range acetylation patterns in the chromatin world. Bioessays 2001;23:820–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.1117.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

17. Samadani, AA, Noroollahi, SE, Mansour-Ghanaei, F, Rashidy-Pour, A, Joukar, F, Bandegi, AR. Fluctuations of epigenetic regulations in human gastric Adenocarcinoma: how does it affect? Biomed Pharmacother 2019;109:144–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2018.10.094.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

18. Turner, N, Reis-Filho, J, Russell, A, Springall, R, Ryder, K, Steele, D, et al.. BRCA1 dysfunction in sporadic basal-like breast cancer. Oncogene 2007;26:2126–32. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1210014.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

19. Roth, SY, Denu, JM, Allis, CD. Histone acetyltransferases. Annu Rev Biochem 2001;70:81–120. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.70.1.81.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

20. Robertson, KD, Ait-Si-Ali, S, Yokochi, T, Wade, PA, Jones, PL, Wolffe, AP. DNMT1 forms a complex with Rb, E2F1 and HDAC1 and represses transcription from E2F-responsive promoters. Nat Genet 2000;25:338–42. https://doi.org/10.1038/77124.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

21. Bachman, KE, Rountree, MR, Baylin, SB. Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b are transcriptional repressors that exhibit unique localization properties to heterochromatin. J Biol Chem 2001;276:32282–7. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.m104661200.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

22. Lachner, M, O’Sullivan, RJ, Jenuwein, T. An epigenetic road map for histone lysine methylation. J Cell Sci 2003;116:2117–24. https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.00493.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

23. Kouzarides, T. Histone methylation in transcriptional control. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2002;12:198–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0959-437x(02)00287-3.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

24. Peters, AH, Mermoud, JE, O’Carroll, D, Pagani, M, Schweizer, D, Brockdorff, N, et al.. Histone H3 lysine 9 methylation is an epigenetic imprint of facultative heterochromatin. Nat Genet 2002;30:77–80. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng789.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

25. Litt, MD, Simpson, M, Gaszner, M, Allis, CD, Felsenfeld, G. Correlation between histone lysine methylation and developmental changes at the chicken β-globin locus. Science 2001;293:2453–5. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1064413.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

26. Rea, S, Eisenhaber, F, O’Carroll, D, Strahl, BD, Sun, Z-W, Schmid, M, et al.. Regulation of chromatin structure by site-specific histone H3 methyltransferases. Nature 2000;406:593–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/35020506.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

27. de Murcia, G, Shall, S. From DNA damage and stress signalling to cell death: poly ADP-ribosylation reactions. Oxford: Oxford University Press on Demand; 2000.Search in Google Scholar

28. Zardo, G, Reale, A, Matteis, GD, Buontempo, S, Caiafa, P. A role for poly (ADP-ribosyl) ation in DNA methylation. Biochem Cell Biol 2003;81:197–208. https://doi.org/10.1139/o03-050.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

29. Cheng, M, Michalski, S, Kommagani, R. Role for growth regulation by estrogen in breast cancer 1 (GREB1) in hormone-dependent cancers. Int J Mol Sci 2018;19:2543. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19092543.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

30. Camden, AJ, Szwarc, MM, Chadchan, SB, DeMayo, FJ, O’Malley, BW, Lydon, JP, et al.. Growth regulation by estrogen in breast cancer 1 (GREB1) is a novel progesterone-responsive gene required for human endometrial stromal decidualization. Mol Human Reprod: Basic Sci Reprod Med 2017;23:646–53. https://doi.org/10.1093/molehr/gax045.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

31. Gaudet, MM, Campan, M, Figueroa, JD, Yang, XR, Lissowska, J, Peplonska, B, et al.. DNA hypermethylation of ESR1 and PGR in breast cancer: pathologic and epidemiologic associations. Cancer Epidemiol Prev Biomark 2009;18:3036–43. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-0678.Search in Google Scholar

32. Singh, P, Yang, M, Dai, H, Yu, D, Huang, Q, Tan, W, et al.. Overexpression and hypomethylation of flap endonuclease 1 gene in breast and other cancers. Mol Cancer Res 2008;6:1710–7. https://doi.org/10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-08-0269.Search in Google Scholar

33. Kim, SJ, Kang, H-S, Chang, HL, Jung, YC, Sim, H-B, Lee, KS, et al.. Promoter hypomethylation of the N-acetyltransferase 1 gene in breast cancer. Oncol Rep 2008;19:663–8. https://doi.org/10.3892/or.19.3.663.Search in Google Scholar

34. Paredes, J, Albergaria, A, Oliveira, JT, Jerónimo, C, Milanezi, F, Schmitt, FC. P-cadherin overexpression is an indicator of clinical outcome in invasive breast carcinomas and is associated with CDH3 promoter hypomethylation. Clin Cancer Res 2005;11:5869–77. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-05-0059.Search in Google Scholar

35. Pakneshan, P, Szyf, M, Farias-Eisner, R, Rabbani, SA. Reversal of the hypomethylation status of urokinase (uPA) promoter blocks breast cancer growth and metastasis. J Biol Chem 2004;279:31735–44. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.m401669200.Search in Google Scholar

36. Medina-Aguilar, R, Pérez-Plasencia, C, Marchat, LA, Gariglio, P, Mena, JG, Cuevas, SR, et al.. Methylation landscape of human breast cancer cells in response to dietary compound resveratrol. PLoS One 2016;11:e0157866. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157866.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

37. Schagdarsurengin, U, Lammert, A, Schunk, N, Sheridan, D, Gattenloehner, S, Steger, K, et al.. Impairment of IGF2 gene expression in prostate cancer is triggered by epigenetic dysregulation of IGF2-DMR0 and its interaction with KLF4. Cell Commun Signal 2017;15:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12964-017-0197-7.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

38. Novak, P, Jensen, T, Oshiro, MM, Watts, GS, Kim, CJ, Futscher, BW. Agglomerative epigenetic aberrations are a common event in human breast cancer. Cancer Res 2008;68:8616–25. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.can-08-1419.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

39. Shann, Y-J, Cheng, C, Chiao, C-H, Chen, D-T, Li, P-H, Hsu, M-T. Genome-wide mapping and characterization of hypomethylated sites in human tissues and breast cancer cell lines. Genome Res 2008;18:791–801. https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.070961.107.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

40. Oluwadare, O, Zhang, Y, Cheng, J. A maximum likelihood algorithm for reconstructing 3D structures of human chromosomes from chromosomal contact data. BMC Genom 2018;19:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-018-4546-8.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

41. Trieu, T, Cheng, J. MOGEN: a tool for reconstructing 3D models of genomes from chromosomal conformation capturing data. Bioinformatics 2016;32:1286–92. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btv754.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

42. Trieu, T, Cheng, J. 3D genome structure modeling by Lorentzian objective function. Nucleic Acids Res 2017;45:1049–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkw1155.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

43. Zhang, Z, Li, G, Toh, K-C, Sung, W-K. 3D chromosome modeling with semi-definite programming and Hi-C data. J Comput Biol 2013;20:831–46. https://doi.org/10.1089/cmb.2013.0076.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

44. Varoquaux, N, Ay, F, Noble, WS, Vert, J-P. A statistical approach for inferring the 3D structure of the genome. Bioinformatics 2014;30:i26–33. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btu268.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

45. Zou, C, Zhang, Y, Ouyang, Z. HSA: integrating multi-track Hi-C data for genome-scale reconstruction of 3D chromatin structure. Genome Biol 2016;17:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-016-0896-1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

46. Boltsis, I, Grosveld, F, Giraud, G, Kolovos, P. Chromatin conformation in development and disease. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021;9:723859. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2021.723859.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

47. Li, X, Xu, B, Li, X, Wang, D, An, Z, Jia, Y, et al.. Widespread transcriptional responses to the thermal stresses are prewired in human 3D genome. BioRxiv 2019;7:728220.10.1101/728220Search in Google Scholar

48. Sun, L, Jing, Y, Liu, X, Li, Q, Xue, Z, Cheng, Z, et al.. Heat stress-induced transposon activation correlates with 3D chromatin organization rearrangement in Arabidopsis. Nat Commun 2020;11:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15809-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

49. Liao, Y, Zhang, X, Chakraborty, M, Emerson, J. Topologically associating domains and their role in the evolution of genome structure and function in Drosophila. Genome Res 2021;31:397–410. https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.266130.120.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

50. Li, E, Liu, H, Huang, L, Zhang, X, Dong, X, Song, W, et al.. Long-range interactions between proximal and distal regulatory regions in maize. Nat Commun 2019;10:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10603-4.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

51. Stroud, H, Greenberg, MV, Feng, S, Bernatavichute, YV, Jacobsen, SE. Comprehensive analysis of silencing mutants reveals complex regulation of the Arabidopsis methylome. Cell 2013;152:352–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2012.10.054.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

52. Rountree, M, Selker, E. DNA methylation and the formation of heterochromatin in Neurospora crassa. Heredity 2010;105:38–44. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2010.44.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

53. Sundar, IK, Rahman, I. Gene expression profiling of epigenetic chromatin modification enzymes and histone marks by cigarette smoke: implications for COPD and lung cancer. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2016;311:L1245–L58. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00253.2016.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

54. Moore, LD, Le, T, Fan, G. DNA methylation and its basic function. Neuropsychopharmacol 2013;38:23–38. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2012.112.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

55. McMahon, KW, Karunasena, E, Ahuja, N. The roles of DNA methylation in the stages of cancer. Cancer J 2017;23:257. https://doi.org/10.1097/ppo.0000000000000279.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

56. Bannister, AJ, Kouzarides, T. Regulation of chromatin by histone modifications. Cell Res 2011;21:381–95. https://doi.org/10.1038/cr.2011.22.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

57. Weaver, IC, Korgan, AC, Lee, K, Wheeler, RV, Hundert, AS, Goguen, D. Stress and the emerging roles of chromatin remodeling in signal integration and stable transmission of reversible phenotypes. Front Behav Neurosci 2017;11:41. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00041.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

58. Toutounchi, M, Shahhosseini, M, Moumeni, MM, Baharvand, H. Epigenetic of stem cells. Cell J. 2007;9:51–66.Search in Google Scholar

59. Esteller, M. Epigenetics in cancer. N Engl J Med 2008;358:1148–59. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmra072067.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

60. Barski, A, Cuddapah, S, Cui, K, Roh, T-Y, Schones, DE, Wang, Z, et al.. High-resolution profiling of histone methylations in the human genome. Cell 2007;129:823–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.009.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

61. Prakash, K, Fournier, D. Deciphering the histone code to build the genome structure. BioRxiv 2017;13:217190.10.1101/217190Search in Google Scholar

62. Gao, Z, Pang, B, Li, J, Gao, N, Fan, T, Li, Y. Emerging role of exosomes in liquid biopsy for monitoring prostate cancer invasion and metastasis. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021;9:1016. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2021.679527.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

63. Constantin, N, Sina, AAI, Korbie, D, Trau, M. Opportunities for early cancer detection: the rise of ctDNA methylation-based pan-cancer screening technologies. Epigenomes 2022;6:6. https://doi.org/10.3390/epigenomes6010006.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

64. Locke, WJ, Guanzon, D, Ma, C, Liew, YJ, Duesing, KR, Fung, KY, et al.. DNA methylation cancer biomarkers: translation to the clinic. Front Genet 2019;10:1150. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.01150.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

65. Doyle, LM, Wang, MZ. Overview of extracellular vesicles, their origin, composition, purpose, and methods for exosome isolation and analysis. Cells 2019;8:727. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8070727.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

66. Revenfeld, ALS, Bæk, R, Nielsen, MH, Stensballe, A, Varming, K, Jørgensen, M. Diagnostic and prognostic potential of extracellular vesicles in peripheral blood. Clin Therapeut 2014;36:830–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2014.05.008.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

67. Mathew, M, Zade, M, Mezghani, N, Patel, R, Wang, Y, Momen-Heravi, F. Extracellular vesicles as biomarkers in cancer immunotherapy. Cancers 2020;12:2825. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers12102825.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

68. Gujar, H, Weisenberger, DJ, Liang, G. The roles of human DNA methyltransferases and their isoforms in shaping the epigenome. Genes 2019;10:172. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes10020172.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

69. Miller, JL, Grant, PA. The role of DNA methylation and histone modifications in transcriptional regulation in humans. Epigenetics: Dev Dis 2013;61:289–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4525-4_13.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

70. Castillo-Aguilera, O, Depreux, P, Halby, L, Arimondo, PB, Goossens, L. DNA methylation targeting: the DNMT/HMT crosstalk challenge. Biomolecules 2017;7:3. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom7010003.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

71. Cheng, Y, He, C, Wang, M, Ma, X, Mo, F, Yang, S, et al.. Targeting epigenetic regulators for cancer therapy: mechanisms and advances in clinical trials. Signal Transduct Targeted Ther 2019;4:1–39. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-019-0095-0.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

72. Chatterjee, A, Rodger, EJ, Eccles, MR, editors. Epigenetic drivers of tumourigenesis and cancer metastasis. Seminars in cancer biology. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2018.10.1016/j.semcancer.2017.08.004Search in Google Scholar PubMed

73. Qian, Z, Shen, Q, Yang, X, Qiu, Y, Zhang, W. The role of extracellular vesicles: an epigenetic view of the cancer microenvironment. BioMed Res Int 2015;2015:649161. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/649161.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

74. Zhang, W, Liu, Y, Jiang, J, Tang, YJ, Tang, Y, Liang, X. Extracellular vesicle long non–coding RNA‐mediated crosstalk in the tumor microenvironment: tiny molecules, huge roles. Cancer Sci 2020;111:2726–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/cas.14494.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

75. Santoro, SW, Dulac, C. Histone variants and cellular plasticity. Trends Genet 2015;31:516–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tig.2015.07.005.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

76. Giaimo, BD, Ferrante, F, Herchenröther, A, Hake, SB, Borggrefe, T. The histone variant H2A. Z in gene regulation. Epigenet Chromatin 2019;12:1–22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13072-019-0274-9.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

77. Henikoff, S, Smith, MM. Histone variants and epigenetics. Cold Spring Harbor Perspect Biol 2015;7:a019364. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a019364.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

78. Urdinguio, RG, Sanchez-Mut, JV, Esteller, M. Epigenetic mechanisms in neurological diseases: genes, syndromes, and therapies. Lancet Neurol 2009;8:1056–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1474-4422(09)70262-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

79. Auclair, G, Weber, M. Mechanisms of DNA methylation and demethylation in mammals. Biochimie 2012;94:2202–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2012.05.016.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

80. Deaton, AM, Bird, A. CpG islands and the regulation of transcription. Genes Dev 2011;25:1010–22. https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.2037511.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

81. Jang, HS, Shin, WJ, Lee, JE, Do, JT. CpG and non-CpG methylation in epigenetic gene regulation and brain function. Genes 2017;8:148. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes8060148.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

82. Basu, A, Dasari, V, Mishra, RK, Khosla, S. The CpG island encompassing the promoter and first exon of human DNMT3L gene is a PcG/TrX response element (PRE). PLoS One 2014;9:e93561. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093561.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

83. Russo, D, Damante, G, Puxeddu, E, Durante, C, Filetti, S. Epigenetics of thyroid cancer and novel therapeutic targets. J Mol Endocrinol 2011;46:R73–81. https://doi.org/10.1530/jme-10-0150.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

84. Yoo, CB, Jones, PA. Epigenetic therapy of cancer: past, present and future. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2006;5:37–50. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd1930.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

85. Feinberg, AP, Tycko, B. The history of cancer epigenetics. Nat Rev Cancer 2004;4:143–53. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc1279.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

86. Nguyen, QT, Lee, EJ, Huang, MG, Park, YI, Khullar, A, Plodkowski, RA. Diagnosis and treatment of patients with thyroid cancer. Am Health drug benefits 2015;8:30.Search in Google Scholar

87. Nellore, A, Paziana, K, Ma, C, Tsygankova, OM, Wang, Y, Puttaswamy, K, et al.. Loss of Rap1GAP in papillary thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;94:1026–32. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2008-1042.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

88. Cote, GJ, Grubbs, EG, Hofmann, M-C. Thyroid C-Cell biology and oncogenic transformation. Recent Results Cancer Res. 2015;204:1–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22542-5_1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

89. Yin, D, Yin, F, Zheng, L. Relationship of methylation of promoter and expression of PTEN gene in papillary thyroid carcinoma. Zhonghua er bi yan hou tou jing wai ke za zhi=Chin J Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2010;45:330.Search in Google Scholar

90. Brehar, A, Brehar, F, Bulgar, A, Dumitrache, C. Genetic and epigenetic alterations in differentiated thyroid carcinoma. J Med Life 2013;6:403.Search in Google Scholar

91. Kunstman, JW, Korah, R, Healy, JM, Prasad, M, Carling, T. Quantitative assessment of RASSF1A methylation as a putative molecular marker in papillary thyroid carcinoma. Surgery 2013;154:1255–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2013.06.025.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

92. Brait, M, Loyo, M, Rosenbaum, E, Ostrow, KL, Markova, A, Papagerakis, S, et al.. Correlation between BRAF mutation and promoter methylation of TIMP3, RARβ2 and RASSF1A in thyroid cancer. Epigenetics 2012;7:710–9. https://doi.org/10.4161/epi.20524.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

93. Xing, M. Molecular pathogenesis and mechanisms of thyroid cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 2013;13:184–99. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc3431.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

94. Gaohong, Z, Lijun, X. Research progress of DNA methylation in thyroid cancer. In: DNA methylation mechanism. London: IntechOpen; 2020.10.5772/intechopen.91048Search in Google Scholar

95. Alvarez-Nuñez, F, Bussaglia, E, Mauricio, D, Ybarra, J, Vilar, M, Lerma, E, et al.. PTEN promoter methylation in sporadic thyroid carcinomas. Thyroid 2006;16:17–23. https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2006.16.17.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

96. Hou, P, Ji, M, Xing, M. Association of PTEN gene methylation with genetic alterations in the phosphatidylinositol 3‐kinase/AKT signaling pathway in thyroid tumors. Cancer 2008;113:2440–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.23869.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

97. Pfeifer, G, Dammann, R. Methylation of the tumor suppressor gene RASSF1A in human tumors. Biochemistry (Moscow) 2005;70:576–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10541-005-0151-y.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

98. Hou, P, Liu, D, Shan, Y, Hu, S, Studeman, K, Condouris, S, et al.. Genetic alterations and their relationship in the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway in thyroid cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2007;13:1161–70. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-06-1125.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

99. Gomez Saez, MJ. Diagnostic and prognostic markers in differentiated thyroid cancer. Curr Genom 2011;12:597–608. https://doi.org/10.2174/138920211798120826.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

100. Xing, M, Cohen, Y, Mambo, E, Tallini, G, Udelsman, R, Ladenson, PW, et al.. Early occurrence of RASSF1A hypermethylation and its mutual exclusion with BRAF mutation in thyroid tumorigenesis. Cancer Res 2004;64:1664–8. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-3242.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

101. Catalano, MG, Fortunati, N, Boccuzzi, G. Epigenetics modifications and therapeutic prospects in human thyroid cancer. Front Endocrinol 2012;3:40. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2012.00040.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

102. Fan, D, Kassiri, Z. Biology of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 3 (TIMP3), and its therapeutic implications in cardiovascular pathology. Front Physiol 2020;11:661. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2020.00661.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

103. Guan, Z, Zhang, J, Song, S, Dai, D. Promoter methylation and expression of TIMP3 gene in gastric cancer. Diagn Pathol 2013;8:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-1596-8-110.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

104. Brew, K, Nagase, H. The tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs): an ancient family with structural and functional diversity. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Res 2010;1803:55–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamcr.2010.01.003.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

105. Rettori, MM, De Carvalho, AC, Longo, ALB, De Oliveira, CZ, Kowalski, LP, Carvalho, AL, et al.. TIMP3 and CCNA1 hypermethylation in HNSCC is associated with an increased incidence of second primary tumors. J Transl Med 2013;11:316. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5876-11-316.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

106. Hu, S, Liu, D, Tufano, RP, Carson, KA, Rosenbaum, E, Cohen, Y, et al.. Association of aberrant methylation of tumor suppressor genes with tumor aggressiveness and BRAF mutation in papillary thyroid cancer. Int J Cancer 2006;119:2322–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.22110.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

107. Eze, OP, Starker, LF, Carling, T. The role of epigenetic alterations in papillary thyroid carcinogenesis. J Thyroid Res 2011;2011:895470. https://doi.org/10.4061/2011/895470.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

108. Li, H, Myeroff, L, Smiraglia, D, Romero, MF, Pretlow, TP, Kasturi, L, et al.. SLC5A8, a sodium transporter, is a tumor suppressor gene silenced by methylation in human colon aberrant crypt foci and cancers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003;100:8412–7. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1430846100.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

109. Takebe, K, Nio, J, Morimatsu, M, Karaki, S-I, Kuwahara, A, Kato, I, et al.. Histochemical demonstration of a Na+-coupled transporter for short-chain fatty acids (slc5a8) in the intestine and kidney of the mouse. Biomed Res 2005;26:213–21. https://doi.org/10.2220/biomedres.26.213.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

110. Coady, MJ, Chang, MH, Charron, FM, Plata, C, Wallendorff, B, Sah, JF, et al.. The human tumour suppressor gene SLC5A8 expresses a Na+–monocarboxylate cotransporter. J Physiol 2004;557:719–31. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2004.063859.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

111. Gopal, E, Fei, Y-J, Sugawara, M, Miyauchi, S, Zhuang, L, Martin, P, et al.. Expression of slc5a8 in kidney and its role in Na+-coupled transport of lactate. J Biol Chem 2004;279:44522–32. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.m405365200.Search in Google Scholar

112. Rousset, B, Dupuy, C, Miot, F, Dumont, J. Thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion. In: Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText. com, Inc.; 2015.Search in Google Scholar

113. Frank, H, Gröger, N, Diener, M, Becker, C, Braun, T, Boettger, T. Lactaturia and loss of sodium-dependent lactate uptake in the colon of SLC5A8-deficient mice. J Biol Chem 2008;283:24729–37. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.m802681200.Search in Google Scholar

114. Sharma, S, Kelly, TK, Jones, PA. Epigenetics in cancer. Carcinogenesis 2010;31:27–36. https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgp220.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

115. Lacroix, L, Pourcher, T, Magnon, C, Bellon, N, Talbot, M, Intaraphairot, T, et al.. Expression of the apical iodide transporter in human thyroid tissues: a comparison study with other iodide transporters. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:1423–8. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2003-030542.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

116. Zane, M, Agostini, M, Enzo, MV, Ide, EC, Del Bianco, P, Torresan, F, et al.. Circulating cell-free DNA, SLC5A8 and SLC26A4 hypermethylation, BRAFV600E: a non-invasive tool panel for early detection of thyroid cancer. Biomed Pharmacother 2013;67:723–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2013.06.007.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

117. Schneider-Stock, R, Roessner, A, Ullrich, O. DAP-kinase—protector or enemy in apoptotic cell death. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2005;37:1763–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocel.2005.02.019.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

118. Roberti, A, Valdes, AF, Torrecillas, R, Fraga, MF, Fernandez, AF. Epigenetics in cancer therapy and nanomedicine. Clin Epigenet 2019;11:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13148-019-0675-4.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

119. Diesch, J, Zwick, A, Garz, A-K, Palau, A, Buschbeck, M, Götze, KS. A clinical-molecular update on azanucleoside-based therapy for the treatment of hematologic cancers. Clin Epigenet 2016;8:71. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13148-016-0237-y.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

120. Lyko, F, Brown, R. DNA methyltransferase inhibitors and the development of epigenetic cancer therapies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005;97:1498–506. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/dji311.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

121. Samadani, AA, Nikbakhsh, N, Taheri, H, Shafaee, S, Fattahi, S, Langroudi, MP, et al.. cdx1/2 and klf5 expression and epigenetic modulation of sonic hedgehog signaling in gastric adenocarcinoma. Pathol Oncol Res 2019;25:1215–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12253-019-00594-4.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

122. Baylin, SB, Jones, PA. Epigenetic determinants of cancer. Cold Spring Harbor Perspect Biol 2016;8:a019505. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a019505.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

123. Long, MD, Smiraglia, DJ, Campbell, MJ. The genomic impact of DNA CpG methylation on gene expression; relationships in prostate cancer. Biomolecules 2017;7:15. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom7010015.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

124. Pfeifer, GP. Defining driver DNA methylation changes in human cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2018;19:1166. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19041166.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

125. Ramos, TD, Amorim, LM. Molecular biology techniques for loss of heterozygosity detection: the glioma example. J Bras Patol Med Lab 2015;51:189–96. https://doi.org/10.5935/1676-2444.20150033.Search in Google Scholar

126. Lahtz, C, Pfeifer, GP. Epigenetic changes of DNA repair genes in cancer. J Mol Cell Biol 2011;3:51–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmcb/mjq053.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

127. Ng, JM-K, Yu, J. Promoter hypermethylation of tumour suppressor genes as potential biomarkers in colorectal cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2015;16:2472–96. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16022472.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

128. Lam, JK, Chow, MY, Zhang, Y, Leung, SW. siRNA versus miRNA as therapeutics for gene silencing. Mol Ther Nucleic Acids 2015;4:e252. https://doi.org/10.1038/mtna.2015.23.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

129. Wainwright, EN, Scaffidi, P. Epigenetics and cancer stem cells: unleashing, hijacking, and restricting cellular plasticity. Trends Cancer 2017;3:372–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trecan.2017.04.004.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

130. Li, X-Q, Guo, Y-Y, De, W. DNA methylation and microRNAs in cancer. World J Gastroenterol: WJG 2012;18:882. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v18.i9.882.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

131. Suzuki, H, Maruyama, R, Yamamoto, E, Kai, M. DNA methylation and microRNA dysregulation in cancer. Mol Oncol 2012;6:567–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molonc.2012.07.007.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

132. Kishikawa, T, Otsuka, M, Ohno, M, Yoshikawa, T, Takata, A, Koike, K. Circulating RNAs as new biomarkers for detecting pancreatic cancer. World J Gastroenterol: WJG 2015;21:8527. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v21.i28.8527.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

133. Rotkrua, P, Akiyama, Y, Hashimoto, Y, Otsubo, T, Yuasa, Y. MiR‐9 downregulates CDX2 expression in gastric cancer cells. Int J Cancer 2011;129:2611–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.25923.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

134. Xu, C, Li, M, Zhang, L, Bi, Y, Wang, P, Li, J, et al.. MicroRNA-205 suppresses the invasion and epithelial-mesenchymal transition of human gastric cancer cells. Mol Med Rep 2016;13:4767–73. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2016.5118.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

135. Higashi, T, Hayashi, H, Ishimoto, T, Takeyama, H, Kaida, T, Arima, K, et al.. miR-9-3p plays a tumour-suppressor role by targeting TAZ (WWTR1) in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Br J Cancer 2015;113:252–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2015.170.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

136. He, X, Zhu, W, Yuan, P, Jiang, S, Li, D, Zhang, H, et al.. miR-155 downregulates ErbB2 and suppresses ErbB2-induced malignant transformation of breast epithelial cells. Oncogene 2016;35:6015–25. https://doi.org/10.1038/onc.2016.132.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

137. Ju, C, Zhou, R, Sun, J, Zhang, F, Tang, X, Chen, KK, et al.. LncRNA SNHG5 promotes the progression of osteosarcoma by sponging the miR-212-3p/SGK3 axis. Cancer Cell Int 2018;18:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12935-018-0641-9.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

138. Liu, Q, Wang, W, Yang, X, Zhao, D, Li, F, Wang, H. MicroRNA-146a inhibits cell migration and invasion by targeting RhoA in breast cancer. Oncol Rep 2016;36:189–96. https://doi.org/10.3892/or.2016.4788.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

139. Park, YR, Lee, ST, Kim, SL, Liu, YC, Lee, MR, Shin, JH, et al.. MicroRNA-9 suppresses cell migration and invasion through downregulation of TM4SF1 in colorectal cancer. Int J Oncol 2016;48:2135–43. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijo.2016.3430.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

140. Guo, CJ, Pan, Q, Cheng, T, Jiang, B, Chen, GY, Li, DG. Changes in microRNAs associated with hepatic stellate cell activation status identify signaling pathways. FEBS J 2009;276:5163–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07213.x.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

141. Forloni, M, Dogra, SK, Dong, Y, Conte, D Jr, Ou, J, Zhu, LJ, et al.. miR-146a promotes the initiation and progression of melanoma by activating Notch signaling. Elife 2014;3:e01460. https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.01460.Search in Google Scholar

142. Wang, S, Pan, Y, Zhang, R, Xu, T, Wu, W, Wang, C, et al.. Hsa-miR-24-3p increases nasopharyngeal carcinoma radiosensitivity by targeting both the 3′ UTR and 5′ UTR of Jab1/CSN5. Oncogene 2016;35:6096–108. https://doi.org/10.1038/onc.2016.147.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

143. Wang, H, Zhang, W, Zuo, Y, Ding, M, Ke, C, Yan, R, et al.. miR-9 promotes cell proliferation and inhibits apoptosis by targeting LASS2 in bladder cancer. Tumor Biol 2015;36:9631–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13277-015-3713-7.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

144. Yang, G, Zhang, P, Lv, A, Liu, Y, Wang, G. MiR-205 functions as a tumor suppressor via targeting TGF-α in osteosarcoma. Exp Mol Pathol 2016;100:160–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yexmp.2015.12.010.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

145. Seashols-Williams, S, Budd, W, Clark, G, Wu, Q, Daniel, R, Dragoescu, E, et al.. miR-9 acts as an oncomiR in prostate cancer through multiple pathways that drive tumour progression and metastasis. PLoS One 2016;11:e0159601. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159601.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

146. Zhang, G, Hou, X, Li, Y, Zhao, M. MiR-205 inhibits cell apoptosis by targeting phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome ten in endometrial cancer Ishikawa cells. BMC Cancer 2014;14:440. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-14-440.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

147. Zhong, G, Xiong, X. miR-205 promotes proliferation and invasion of laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma by suppressing CDK2AP1 expression. Biol Res 2015;48:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40659-015-0052-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

148. Wada, R, Akiyama, Y, Hashimoto, Y, Fukamachi, H, Yuasa, Y. miR‐212 is downregulated and suppresses methyl‐CpG‐binding protein MeCP2 in human gastric cancer. Int J Cancer 2010;127:1106–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.25126.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

149. Yuan, R, Wang, G, Xu, Z, Zhao, H, Chen, H, Han, Y, et al. Up-regulated circulating miR-106a by DNA methylation promised a potential diagnostic and prognostic marker for gastric cancer. Anti-Cancer Agents Med Chem 2016;16:1093–100, https://doi.org/10.2174/1871520615666150716110657.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

150. Wu, T, Qu, L, He, G, Tian, L, Li, L, Zhou, H, et al.. Regulation of laryngeal squamous cell cancer progression by the lncRNA H19/miR-148a-3p/DNMT1 axis. Oncotarget 2016;7:11553. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.7270.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

151. Shen, Z, Zhou, C, Li, J, Ye, D, Li, Q, Wang, J, et al.. Promoter hypermethylation of miR-34a contributes to the risk, progression, metastasis and poor survival of laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Gene 2016;593:272–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2016.07.047.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

152. Zhang, B, Yang, Y, Shi, X, Liao, W, Chen, M, Cheng, AS-L, et al.. Proton pump inhibitor pantoprazole abrogates adriamycin-resistant gastric cancer cell invasiveness via suppression of Akt/GSK-β/β-catenin signaling and epithelial–mesenchymal transition. Cancer Lett 2015;356:704–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2014.10.016.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

153. Chen, Z, Liu, S, Tian, L, Wu, M, Ai, F, Tang, W, et al.. miR-124 and miR-506 inhibit colorectal cancer progression by targeting DNMT3B and DNMT1. Oncotarget 2015;6:38139. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.5709.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

154. Fabbri, M, Garzon, R, Cimmino, A, Liu, Z, Zanesi, N, Callegari, E, et al.. MicroRNA-29 family reverts aberrant methylation in lung cancer by targeting DNA methyltransferases 3A and 3B. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007;104:15805–10. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707628104.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

155. Roscigno, G, Quintavalle, C, Donnarumma, E, Puoti, I, Diaz-Lagares, A, Iaboni, M, et al.. MiR-221 promotes stemness of breast cancer cells by targeting DNMT3b. Oncotarget 2016;7:580. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.5979.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

156. Chen, Y, Luo, J, Tian, R, Sun, H, Zou, S. miR-373 negatively regulates methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 2 (MBD2) in hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Dig Dis Sci 2011;56:1693–701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-010-1481-1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

157. Hou, YY, You, JJ, Yang, CM, Pan, HW, Chen, HC, Lee, JH, et al.. Aberrant DNA hypomethylation of miR-196b contributes to migration and invasion of oral cancer. Oncol Lett 2016;11:4013–21. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2016.4491.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

158. Lopez-Bertoni, H, Lal, B, Michelson, N, Guerrero-Cazares, H, Quinones-Hinojosa, A, Li, Y, et al.. Epigenetic modulation of a miR-296-5p: HMGA1 axis regulates Sox2 expression and glioblastoma stem cells. Oncogene 2016;35:4903–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/onc.2016.22.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

159. Huang, R, Jaritz, M, Guenzl, P, Vlatkovic, I, Sommer, A, Tamir, IM, et al.. An RNA-Seq strategy to detect the complete coding and non-coding transcriptome including full-length imprinted macro ncRNAs. PLoS One 2011;6:e27288. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0027288.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

160. Fatica, A, Bozzoni, I. Long non-coding RNAs: new players in cell differentiation and development. Nat Rev Genet 2014;15:7–21. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg3606.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

161. Cai, B, Song, X, Cai, J, Zhang, S. HOTAIR: a cancer-related long non-coding RNA. Neoplasma 2014;61:379–91. https://doi.org/10.4149/neo_2014_075.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

162. Kim, K, Jutooru, I, Chadalapaka, G, Johnson, G, Frank, J, Burghardt, R, et al.. HOTAIR is a negative prognostic factor and exhibits pro-oncogenic activity in pancreatic cancer. Oncogene 2013;32:1616–25. https://doi.org/10.1038/onc.2012.193.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

163. Li, D, Feng, J, Wu, T, Wang, Y, Sun, Y, Ren, J, et al.. Long intergenic noncoding RNA HOTAIR is overexpressed and regulates PTEN methylation in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Am J Pathol 2013;182:64–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.08.042.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

164. Liu, Y, Sun, M, Xia, R, Zhang, E, Liu, X, Zhang, Z, et al.. Linc HOTAIR epigenetically silences miR34a by binding to PRC2 to promote the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in human gastric cancer. Cell Death Dis 2015;6:e1802. https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2015.150.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

165. Nie, Y, Liu, X, Qu, S, Song, E, Zou, H, Gong, C. Long non‐coding RNA HOTAIR is an independent prognostic marker for nasopharyngeal carcinoma progression and survival. Cancer Sci 2013;104:458–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/cas.12092.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

166. Wang, Y, Liu, X, Zhang, H, Sun, L, Zhou, Y, Jin, H, et al.. Hypoxia-inducible lncRNA-AK058003 promotes gastric cancer metastasis by targeting γ-synuclein. Neoplasia 2014;16:1094–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neo.2014.10.008.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

167. Yang, Z, Wang, R, Zhang, T, Dong, X. Hypoxia/lncRNA-AK123072/EGFR pathway induced metastasis and invasion in gastric cancer. Int J Clin Exp Med 2015;8:19954.Search in Google Scholar

168. Law, JA, Jacobsen, SE. Establishing, maintaining and modifying DNA methylation patterns in plants and animals. Nat Rev Genet 2010;11:204–20. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg2719.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

169. Steinhoff, C, Paulsen, M, Kielbasa, S, Walter, J, Vingron, M. Expression profile and transcription factor binding site exploration of imprinted genes in human and mouse. BMC Genom 2009;10:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-10-144.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

170. Brookes, E, Shi, Y. Diverse epigenetic mechanisms of human disease. Annu Rev Genet 2014;48:237–68. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genet-120213-092518.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

171. Zeng, Y, Chen, T. DNA methylation reprogramming during mammalian development. Genes 2019;10:257. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes10040257.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

172. Pop, S, Enciu, AM, Tarcomnicu, I, Gille, E, Tanase, C. Phytochemicals in cancer prevention: modulating epigenetic alterations of DNA methylation. Phytochemistry Rev 2019;18:1005–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-019-09627-x.Search in Google Scholar

173. Flis, S, Gnyszka, A, Flis, K. DNA methyltransferase inhibitors improve the effect of chemotherapeutic agents in SW48 and HT-29 colorectal cancer cells. PLoS One 2014;9:e92305. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0092305.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

174. Giri, AK, Aittokallio, T. DNMT inhibitors increase methylation in the cancer genome. Front Pharmacol 2019;10:385. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.00385.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

175. Nunes, SP, Henrique, R, Jerónimo, C, Paramio, JM. DNA methylation as a therapeutic target for bladder. Cancer Cells (Cold Spring Harbor) 2020;9:1850. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9081850.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

176. Majumdar, S, Buckles, E, Estrada, J, Koochekpour, S. Aberrant DNA methylation and prostate cancer. Curr Genom 2011;12:486–505. https://doi.org/10.2174/138920211797904061.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

177. Brooks, J, Cairns, P, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte, A. Promoter methylation and the detection of breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control 2009;20:1539–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-009-9415-y.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

178. Ahuja, N, Sharma, AR, Baylin, SB. Epigenetic therapeutics: a new weapon in the war against cancer. Annu Rev Med 2016;67:73–89. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-111314-035900.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

179. Lu, Y, Chan, Y-T, Tan, H-Y, Li, S, Wang, N, Feng, Y. Epigenetic regulation in human cancer: the potential role of epi-drug in cancer therapy. Mol Cancer 2020;19:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12943-020-01197-3.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

180. Naghitorabi, M, Sadeghi, HMM, Asl, JM, Rabbani, M, Jafarian-Dehkordi, A. Study of the role of siRNA mediated promoter methylation in DNMT3B knockdown and alteration of promoter methylation of CDH1, GSTP1 genes in MDA-MB-453 cell line. Iran J Pharm Res (IJPR) 2017;16:771.Search in Google Scholar