Mongolian Diaspora. Journal of Mongolian History and Culture

In this article, we present the results of a comparative study on inflexional suffixes involved in the grammatical construction of nouns and verbs in nine Mongolic languages: Mongolian, Oirat, Buryat, Monguor, Mogul, Dagur, Dongxiang, Bonan, and East Yugur, as well as in some dialects. To understand any lingustic phenomenon, it is essential to study it at both synchronic and sequential levels. That said, the fundamental issue remains the dialectic unity of analysis. Accordingly, in our study, we have collected linguistic materials relating to Mongolian languages and dialects and examined them both synchronically and sequentially, that is, by comparing and analyzing them from a historical perspective, in order to determine future trends in their development. Although eight grammatical cases have traditionally been defined and described, a comprehensive analysis of Mongolian languages and dialects identifies 12 cases in active use. Suffixes are derived from independent words and root syllables or from word-forming suffixes. As they evolved, particularly during the Middle Mongolian period, they lost their status as authentic words and, in modern times, have become morphemes. Quantitatively, grammatical case suffixes have increased in number through a process of ramification. At the same time, in their meanings have become more clearly defined and precise. In terms of form, suffixes have followed the linguistic principle of abbreviation, and have often been reduced to a single phoneme (usually a consonant) carrying grammatical meaning. On the other hand, the meaning and function of each suffix have expanded. New suffixes, formed from independent words, came to share some of the functions and meanings of older ones. In this way, the twofold process of language development has continued to the present day, in accordance with General Systems Theory.

When Chinggis Khaan built the Mongol Empire, he quickly realized that establishing a state law was necessary to unite and rule over many different arbitrary tribes, and thus a high priority was given for the immediate establishment of such a law. In order to solidify his administrative reforms for the nascent Mongol Empire, he created a set of legislations referred to as the “The Yasa” (Great Rule). This research explores the extent of the contributions Chinggis Khaan had on The Yasa and the lasting impact of this law on the development of the legal environment in Mongolia.

This paper delves into the examination of food-related terminology across Mongolian, Manchu, and Korean languages, leveraging two eighteenth-century Joseon Dynasty dictionaries: the Mongolian-Korean dictionary ( Mongoeyuhae ) and the Manchu-Korean dictionary ( Dongmunyuhae ). This historical exploration encompasses 411 food-related vocabulary words, categorizing them into distinct segments covering food and ingredient names, culinary techniques, consumption practices, and sensory attributes such as taste, aroma, and texture. A critical focus of the study is placed on the in-depth analysis of 57 terms from the Mongolian-Korean dictionary, revealing elements from Mongolian culture, and 53 terms from the Manchu-Korean dictionary, reflecting influences from the Eastern Gate culture. This linguistic analysis further uncovers the meanings behind these terms, their connections to contemporary Korean language, and their contribution to vocabulary development. The study leads to four principal conclusions. Firstly, it underscores the enduring utilization of food and ingredient names from the Joseon Dynasty, indicating their resilience in culinary contexts despite the passage of three centuries. Secondly, the research highlights a significant presence of words that carry regional cultural nuances within the language materials used for foreign language education and interpretation, with a specific emphasis on the Mongolian-influenced vocabulary. Thirdly, it observes that the dissemination of food cultures and their associated vocabulary across different countries manifests notable similarities in the contexts of Mongolian, Manchu, and Korean, as rigorously examined throughout this article. Lastly, the study explores how our ancestors creatively adapted vocabulary to navigate the intricacies of food cultures that evolved distinctively due to diverse factors like climate, culture, and lifestyle. As a stepping stone for future research, this study suggests expanding the scope of investigation to encompass cooking techniques, utensils, consumption practices, as well as more nuanced aspects of food, including its states, taste, aroma, and texture. Such an extended inquiry would significantly enhance our comprehension of the intricate tapestry of food cultures and their linguistic expressions across these three languages.

The Tsagaan Sar (Mongolian Lunar New Year) of the Mongols is a complex culture that has evolved over time, enriching various practices like traditional food and drinks, games, clothing, and the sharing and exchanging of gifts from various cultures. In our opinion, the contemporary practice of “exchanging gifts” among Mongols during Tsagaan Sar carries two communicative meanings of a diverging nature: on the one hand, it is originally rooted in ancient hunting culture, while on the other hand, it stems from the practice of “wedding gifts” and “offering gifts,” which derive from the relationship between state and religion. In this article, we aim to compare the similarities in the symbolic relationship between two traditional practices: “giving a share” ( qubi ögkü , in Mongolian tradition, refers to inheritance allocated according to the arrangement made when property is divided, ensuring that each individual receives an equal share); and “exchanging gifts.” We them aim to present a new idea on how people symbolize and classify gifts as a system on the categorical level.

The establishment of a protectorate over Tuva by Russia in 1914 was followed by attempts to introduce Russian administrative and judicial system, which did not always take due account of characteristic features of a well-established internal self-governance of Tuvans. The 1917 revolutions in Russia and the civil war that immediately ensued also had an influence on Tuva, exacerbating the already complicated political situation. The Urga and Peking governments contributed to this by taking concerted action to capture the territory of Tuva. The groundwork for military action was laid closer to the border line, and in 1919 Tuva was invaded by armed units of the Chinese and Mongolians, who used foodstuffs and carts requisitioned from local people to replenish supplies and recruited the local population to reinforce their troops. The Omsk Government was unable to provide any substantial help. This article, based on archival studies and a contributions series of Russian and international scholars, attempts to offer a number of insights about the reasons, course, and outcome of this armed conflict.

The “irrational” nature of communicating with spirits in shamanic culture possesses a cultural and spiritual healing power that is difficult for modern science to match. The paradox of shamanic culture is that reason does not require us to eliminate irrational elements of emotion, mystical fantasy, and religious belief; rather, all that reason requires of us is to discursively understand, and critically balance these irrational elements. Based on Freudian psychology, we analyze the “irrational” qualities of Mongolian shamans and identify the inherent differences between Mongolian shamanic beliefs, the nature of religion, and the laws governing their operation.

The centuries-long relationship between Mongolia and Japan is characterized by the cross-border movement of goods and services, ideas, and cultural influences. Despite their geographical distance, the two nations have maintained vibrant relations that have changed over time. From ancient trade routes to modern economic cooperation, the historical trade relations between Mongolia and Japan have left an indelible mark on both countries. The trade relationship between Japan and Mongolia has traversed various significant periods: the era of martial engagements in the Middle Ages; the resurgence of both nations on the global stage; cooperation amidst divergent socialist and capitalist systems; and the transition towards modern, mutually advantageous collaboration. By analyzing the historical trade relationships between Mongolia and Japan and the existing Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) between the two countries, this study aims to project how their trade and economic relations will develop in the future.

This study examines the symbolic usage of the color blue in contemporary Mongolian poetry, analyzing a corpus of 2,217 poems by 264 poets between 1921 and 2003 through the theoretical frameworks of Northrop Frye’s five-stage theory of literary symbolism and Charles Sanders Peirce’s triadic semiotic model. The research analyzes 177 instances of blue color imagery from 120 poems by 74 Mongolian poets, revealing 23 distinct lexical variants of blue terminology in the Mongolian language. The study employs a systematic categorization approach, identifying 10 semantic categories ranging from sky/heavens (63 instances, 36 %) to psychological expressions (four instances, 2 %). The analysis demonstrates that blue symbolism in Mongolian poetry operates across multiple levels – from literal descriptions of natural phenomena to profound archetypal representations of Mongolian cosmology, national identity, and spiritual transcendence. Key findings reveal that blue functions not merely as a chromatic descriptor but as a complex semiotic system deeply embedded in Mongolian cultural consciousness. The color serves as a bridge between traditional Tengristic beliefs (particularly the reverence for the Eternal Blue Sky) and contemporary literary expression, while simultaneously adapting to modern psychological, existential, and aesthetic dimensions.

The Manchu source Jun gar-i ba-be necihiyeme toktobuha bodogon-i bithe ( Strategy Book for the Pacification of the Dzüüngarian Territory ), appeared in print in 1770 and Chinese block print in 1772 before being included in the Complete Book of the Four Storehouses (四庫全書) in 1781. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) details in this chronicle the conquests of the Dzüüngar Empire (1671–1755), the Tibetan Plateau, and the Muslim city-states of the Tarim Basin, and also explores correspondence with the Imperial Russians, covering the Kyakhta Treaty signed in 1727 and issues that arose from it during the Qianlong (r. 1735–1796) era. It sheds light on the source content, the corpus of publications, and the Manchu-Chinese block prints compiled under Fuheng (1720–1770), the Qianlong emperor’s brother-in-law. This article explores the biographies of the supervisors and other contributing individuals in the compilation. The importance of the source, which covers 1700 to 1765, is also explored. The article aims to initiate a new academic conversation about this significant historical source.

This article examines and compares taboo expressions (taboo words, idiomatic expressions, and taboo proverbs) related to residential living in Korean and Mongolian. To do so, the article classifies and compares the types of words and expressions that appear in taboo expressions related to residence in the use of language and linguistic habits of Korean and Mongolian societies. The study then investigates types of taboo proverbs related to residence that are inherent in the languages of the two countries and their aspects of realization.

Magical spells, which reflect the Mongolian way of life, are used in daily lives to cure diseases. They are also believed to restore good fortune, summon success, and revive the energy and morale of humans and animals. They are also considered useful for protecting against evil and danger, such as harmful speech, theft, fire, and water hazards, and for guarding against misfortune. Spells are thought to be emotionally calming and to inspire confidence, providing emotional support, hope, and peace. They are also regarded as part of a cultural tradition of living in harmony with nature, expressing respect for mountains, water, and land, using the power of nature, drawing upon nature’s power to live in balance with it. For this reason, the role of distance in the epic poem is emphasized. Dom refers to a set of powerful, magical words used to eliminate misfortune, illness, or evil, or to invite good fortune and well-being. It represents a form of belief grounded in faith and spiritual conviction. “Shivshleg” is a secretive utterance, often whispered or spoken softly, believed to possess mystical power through the force of words and mental focus. It has traditionally been used not only by spiritual practitioners such as shamans ( böö , zairan , udgan ) but also, at times, by ordinary people. The origins and foundational beliefs behind dom and shivshleg are deeply rooted in multiple layers of traditional Mongolian spirituality, which includes animism (the belief that all elements of nature possess a spirit), sky worship, shamanic practices, and Buddhist teachings. These beliefs have evolved and been passed down through generations, shaping a complex spiritual heritage.

Khöömii is a distinctive Mongolian vocal art that produces multiple harmonic tones simultaneously through precise control of the vocal and respiratory systems. Originating from oral tradition and ritual practices, khöömii was originally used to praise nature, express reverence, and evoke spiritual connection. Over time, it has evolved into a refined stage art influenced by modernization and institutional training. The two main styles –  shakhaa (pressure-based) and kharkhiraa (growl-based) – serve as the foundation of various advanced techniques, expanding its expressive possibilities. This study explores the development of khöömii , focusing on its evolving repertoire, which now includes traditional nature imitations, folk songs, praise chants, and complex operatic works. Professional training has been crucial in this transition, shaping both technical skills and creative composition. The research investigates the thematic and formal diversity of khöömii pieces, their cultural significance, and their potential for collaboration other musical forms. Ultimately, it study shows how repertoire expansion reflects artistic innovation and highlights the contemporary relevance and sustainability of this ancient vocal tradition.

As foreign teachers have become a crucial of language learning, they also face potential differences in communication styles, working conditions, beliefs, and even teaching methodologies, which may lead to conflicts in various aspects of their stays in Asian countries. These differences, in turn, can affect language learners, particularly during discussions of cultural issues. To address – and ideally prevent – any challenges teachers may encounter, this study will lean on Hofstede’s theory of cultural dimensions. Hofstede’s framework includes the Power Distance Index (PDI), Individualism (IDV) versus Collectivism, Masculinity versus Femininity (MAS), Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI), and Long-Term Orientation versus Short-Term Orientation (LTO) dimension. His research is highly relevant for studies on cultural adaptation and can be particularly helpful for English teachers working in cross-cultural classrooms, as they navigate differences in their students’ expectations and values. The working environment of English teachers is inherently cross-cultural, and exploring the perspectives of foreign teachers in Mongolia through Hofstede’s theory is essential to understanding these cultural dynamics.

Dharma Güüsi was not only a historian and translator but also an expert in sutra and tantra. He created works in Tibetan and Mongolian which he made available to the public. Although Güüsi wrote comprehensively about his homeland, Jaruud, in The Golden Wheel with Thousand Spokes ( Altan Kürdün Mingγan Kigesütü Bičig ), he did not include any biographical information, such as about his origin and lineage. Güüsi wrote many works on Mongolian history, traditional medical science, and sutra-tantra. Notable works include The Golden Wheel with a Thousand Spokes , Merged γarqu-yin orun , Danjuur , Lhangtab , Onul namančilaqu-yin tayilburi gem-ün qarangqui-yi arilγaγči naran jula , Čoγta včir ayulγaγči arban γurban burqantu-yin egüsgel-ün jerge-yi delgerenggüi nomlaγsan sidi-yin sayin qumq-a kemekü orusibai , and Čindamani-yin sang , written in Tibetan and Mongolian. Among these, The Golden Wheel with a Thousand Spokes is a significant text in Mongolian history, written in Mongolian Script using a brush. There are three known versions of this work: the “Köke qota” version, the version held at the Institute of Oriental Studies St. Petersburg, Russia, and the original photographic version, held in Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark.