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Composition of the essential oil of Satureja metastasiantha: a new species for the flora of Turkey

  • Sema Carikci ORCID logo , Ahmet C. Goren ORCID logo EMAIL logo , Tuncay Dirmenci , Burhanettin Yalcinkaya ORCID logo , Aysen Erkucuk and Gulacti Topcu
Published/Copyright: March 12, 2020
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Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C
From the journal Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C Volume 75 Issue 7-8

Abstract

The aerial parts of Satureja metastasiantha were hydrodistilled for 3 h using a Clevenger-type apparatus. The essential oils were analyzed by gas chromatography/flame ionization detector and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, simultaneously, the main compounds of which were characterized as p-cymene (22.3%), thymol (21.0%), carvacrol (18.4%), and γ-terpinene (12.1%). Antioxidant capacity, acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase inhibition effects, and antimicrobial and antifungal properties of the species were evaluated. The anticholinesterase activity of the essential oil of S. metastasiantha was observed with 30% inhibition at 200 μg/mL. The essential oil of the species showed activity against Staphylococcus aureus with 128 μg/mL minimum inhibitory concentration value.

Keywords: AChE; antimicrobial; antioxidant; carvacrol; essential oil; Satureja metastasiantha

1 Introduction

Species of Lamiaceae family, in the world and Turkey, has been used in a wide range of applications. Its members are widely used as a spice in Turkish folklore in flavoring condiments, relishes, soups, sausages, canned meats, and spicy table sauces [1], [2]. Lamiaceae is the third largest family based on its number of taxon and the fourth largest family based on its number of species in Turkey. The rate of endemism is around 44% [3]. The genus Satureja L. is represented by 46 and 16 species in the world and Turkey, respectively, 6 species of which in Turkey are endemic. The species of the genus Satureja are distributed mainly in Mediterranean countries, Europe, North Africa, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and Caucasus [4], [5], among which Turkey has the most of the species of genus Satureja [6], [7]. According to the recent studies on Lamiaceae family in Turkey, the number of species is on the increase [3], [8]. Satureja metastasiantha (Zap Kaya kekiği) is one of the species in the flora of Turkey, discovered by Dirmenci and his group [7]. Satureja metastasiantha is distributed in north of Iraq and Southeastern Anatolia of Turkey [7], [9].

Satureja species are popularly named as “Sivri Kekik” or “Kaya Kekiği” by local people in Turkey, and their species have commercial importance. Mainly, the six species of the genus, e.g. Satureja thymbra, S. cuneifolia, S. wiedemanniana, S. spicigera, S. hortensis, and S. cilicia, are used as spice (thyme), and their essential oils are important input in pharmaceuticals and cosmetic industries because of their antibacterial and antifungal activities. These species are traditionally used against cold and bronchitis and exported across the world in high quantities as thyme and essential oil [1], [10], [11].

In our previous reports, Satureja species were indicated to grow mainly in Western and Southern Anatolia because of the climate conditions [1]. The title species has been reported to be available in the Hakkari province of Turkey, having the most continental climate zone. Satureja metastasiantha is determined as the second species grown in strong continental climate zone of Turkey. In this study, the chemical composition of essential oil of S. metastasiantha is reported for the first time as a new source of commercially important species. The main components were found to be thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene, and γ-terpinene. Biological activities of the essential oil and methanol extract of the species are also reported.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Plant material

Aerial parts of Satureja metastasiantha Rech.f. were collected from 31 km of Şemdinli to Derecik, above Örencik village, K 37.163397 D 44.42670, 1600 m, on March 8, 2018. The plant was identified by Prof. Dr. Tuncay Dirmenci of Balikesir University, Turkey. A voucher specimen was deposited in the Herbarium of Department of Biology, Faculty of Necatibey Education Faculty, Balikesir University (TD 5126).

2.2 Isolation of the essential oils

The dried aerial parts (150 g×3) of S. metastasiantha were subjected to hydrodistillation for 3 h, using a Clevenger-type apparatus. The obtained essential oil was dried over anhydrous CaCl2 and stored at 4 °C until the measurement. The yields were determined as 0.80%±0.05. The density of the essential oil was measured to be 0.892±0.002 g/mL.

2.3 GC and GC-MS conditions

The essential oil was analyzed by capillary gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS) systems.

2.3.1 GC-MS analysis

The essential oils were diluted with CH2Cl2 (1:10) and analyzed using a Trace 1310 GC series gas chromatograph (Thermo Scientific, Inc., Waltham, MA, USA) and a Thermo TSQ 9000 mass spectrometer (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The separation was carried out in a DB5-fused silica column (60 m, 0.25 mm, ø with 0.5 μm film thickness). Helium was used as a carrier gas at a flow rate of 1 mL/min. The oven temperature was kept at 100 °C for 5 min, programmed to 240 °C at a rate of 4 °C/min and kept constant at 240 °C for 5 min. The injection and source temperatures were 250 °C and 220 °C, respectively. The MS interface temperature was 240 °C. The injection volume was 0.5 μL with a split ratio of 1:20. Injections of the samples were performed in triplicate. Electron ionization/MS was recorded at 70 eV ionization energy. The scan time was 0.5 s with 0.1 interscan delay. The mass range was from m/z 50 to 650 amu [1], [12].

2.3.2 GC analysis

The GC analysis was carried out using a Trace 1310 GC series gas chromatograph (Thermo Fischer Scientific, Inc., ON, CA). In order to obtain the same elution order with GC-MS, simultaneous injection was conducted by using the same column and an appropriate operational condition. FID temperature was set to 300 °C [12].

2.4 Identification of compounds

A homologous series of n-alkanes was used as a reference in the calculation of Kovats Indices (KI). Identification of the compounds was based on the comparison of their retention times and mass spectra with those obtained from authentic samples and/or the NIST and Wiley spectra, Library of Bezmialem Vakif University, Drug Application and Research Center (İLMER) as well as the literature data. Ultra Kit WRK 105 terpene mixture was used in co-injection to check the results of the library search. In addition, authentic samples for thymol, carvacrol, spathulenol, and caryophyllene oxide, previously isolated by our group from plant species, were used for identification of composition of the essential oil. The relative standard deviations (RSD%) of the identified compounds were calculated through three individual replicates of the obtained essential oil and determined to be 0.05%.

2.5 Antioxidant activity

The antioxidant activities of the essential oil and methanol extract were determined by using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging and cupric (Cu2+) ion reducing power assay (CUPRAC) methods [13], [14]. The results of the experiments are the average of triplicate analyses. The experimental data were calculated as the mean±standard deviation. Variance ANOVA including one-way analysis was realized. Significant differences between the means were recorded by Duncan’s multiple range tests. p<0.05 was regarded as significant, and p<0.01 was very significant.

2.5.1 DPPH free radical scavenging activity assay

The free radical scavenging activity of the essential oil and methanol extract were determined by DPPH free radical scavenging activity assay. Briefly, 0.1 mM solution of DPPH in ethanol was prepared, and 160 μL of this solution was added to 40 μL of the sample solutions in ethanol (10, 25, 50, and 100 μM), which were then incubated for 30 min. As control standards, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), and α-tocopherol (α-TOC) were used. After the incubation at room temperature, the absorbance was measured at 517 nm.

2.5.2 Cu2+ reduction capacity (CUPRAC method)

For the determination of antioxidant capacity of the essential oil and methanol extract of species CUPRAC (Cupric Reducing Antioxidant Capacity), the following method was applied: Briefly, 1 M NH4Ac (pH=7.0), 10 mM CuCl2, 7.5 mM Neocuproine, 1 M NH4CH3COO (pH 7.0), and distilled water were mixed in volume ratios of 1:1:1:0.6. Of the mixture, 180 μL was aliquoted into the wells. Then, 25 μL of the aliquot from the 1 mg/mL stock solution of the tested material, in ethanol, was added to each wells and mixed gently. The wells were closed and left at room temperature for 30 min. Finally, the absorbance was measured at 450 nm against a blank reagent by Beckman Coulter DTX 880 Multimode Detection System (Beckman Coulter, Brea, CA, USA). Ethanol was used as a negative control and BHT, BHA, and α-TOC were used as positive controls.

Total antioxidant activity(%)=((Rcontrol−Rsample)/Rcontrol))×100

2.6 Anticholinesterase activity

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) inhibitory activities were measured by a slightly modified spectrophotometric method, developed by Ellman et al. [15].

Acetylthiocholine iodide and butyryl thiocholine iodide were used as substrates of the reaction, and Ellman’s Reagent, i.e. 5,5′-dithiobis-(2-ditrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) method, was applied for the measurement of the activity. Briefly, 130 μL of 100 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 8.0), 10 μL extract sample (4 mg/mL), and 20 μL of AChE or BChE solution were mixed and incubated for 15 min at 25 °C, after which 0.5 mM (15 μL) DTNB was added. The reaction was then initiated by addition of acetylthiocholine iodide (0.71 mM) or butyrylthiocholinechloride (0.2 mM). The hydrolysis of these extracts was monitored by UV-Vis spectrophotometer. Formation of yellow colored 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoate anion was followed at 412 nm as the result of the reaction of DTNB with thiocholine, released by an enzymatic hydrolysis of acetylthiocholine iodide or butyrylthiocholine chloride.

Ethanol was used as a solvent to dissolve extracts and the controls. Percentage inhibition of AChE and BChE was calculated using the following formula: ((E−S)/E×100). Ethanol was used as a blank control, and it is coded as E in the formula. Activity of the enzyme with the extract is coded as S. Galanthamine (4 mg/mL) was used as a positive control. All tests were conducted in triplicate.

2.7 Antibacterial and antifungal activity

Essential oils and methanol extracts of S. metastasiantha were tested against the following standard strains of Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Candida albicans ATCC 10231, and Mycobacterium smegmatis for the determination of antimicrobial and antifungal activities.

The tube dilution procedure, outlined by the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards, was used for the determination of antibacterial and antifungal activities of the extracts. All the tests were performed in Mueller-Hinton Broth. The methanol and chloroform extracts were evaporated and suspended in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). The extracted essential oils were diluted with DMSO [16].

Final concentration of the essential oil was prepared from 4 to 2048 μg/mL in a well. Using McFarland turbidity standard, 0.5 McFarland bacteria suspension was inoculated per well in a 96-well round-bottom microplates. DMSO was used as a negative control for the activities. Oxacillin, gentamicin, streptomycin, and fluconazole were used as positive controls. All the tests were performed in triplicate, and the plates were incubated at 37 °C for 24–48 h, then, the endpoint was evaluated. The lowest concentration of the extracts, inhibiting the visible growth, was considered as the minimum inhibitory concentration [17].

3 Results and Discussion

Satureja metastasiantha was identified as a new species for the first time by Dr. Dirmenci and his group in the flora of Turkey. This species had previously been reported only in North of Iraq [7]. The form and smell of the species were found very similar to other commercially important Satureja species, which is rationally used as a spice in Turkey and Iraq. However, until now, there has been no chemical composition report available on that species in the literature. Therefore, herein, we aimed to determine the chemical composition of the essential oil of S. metastasiantha and its biological activity pattern.

Sixty-one compounds were identified in the oil, distilled from the leaves of S. metastasiantha, representing 99.5% of the oil constituents. The main compounds found in the essential oil were characterized as p-cymene (22.3%), thymol (21.0%), carvacrol (18.4%), and γ-terpinene (12.1%). The other identified compounds and their percentages are given in Table 1.

Table 1:

Essential oil of composition of Satureja metastasiantha.

RRICompounds%Identification method
8552-Hexanal0.1RRI, MS
8593-Hexen-1-ol–RRI, MS
927TricycleneTRRI, MS
930α-Thujene1.3RRI, MS
939α-Pinene1.6RRI, MS, ST
954Camphene1.0RRI, MS
975SabinenetRRI, MS
979β-Pinene0.3RRI, MS, ST
9791-Octen-3-ol0.2RRI, MS
991β-Myrcene2.1RRI, MS, ST
9913-Octanol0.1RRI, MS
1003α-Phellandrene0.3RRI, MS
10093-Carene0.1RRI, MS
1017α-Terpinene3.6RRI, MS, ST
1025p-Cymene22.3RRI, MS
1029Limonene0.4RRI, MS, ST
10311,8-CineoletRRI, MS
1037trans-β-Ocimene0.2RRI, MS
1050cis-β-Ocimene0.1RRI, MS
1060γ-Terpinene12.1RRI, MS, ST
1070cis-Sabinene hydrate0.4RRI, MS
1096Dimethylstyrene0.2RRI, MS
1097Linalool1.3RRI, MS, ST
1141cis-Verbenol0.1RRI, MS
1143cis-SabinoltRRI, MS
1145trans-VerbenoltRRI, MS
1169Borneol2.2RRI, MS, ST
11774-Terpineol1.3RRI, MS
1183p-Cymen-8-oltRRI, MS
1189α-Terpineol0.1RRI, MS, ST
1196Myrtenol0.1RRI, MS
1217trans-CarveoltRRI, MS
1230NeroltRRI, MS
1238β-CitraltRRI, MS, ST
1243Carvone0.7RRI, MS
1253GeranioltRRI, MS, ST
1267GeranialtRRI, MS
1291Thymol21.0RRI, MS
1299Carvacrol18.4RRI, MS
1359Eugenol–RRI, MS
1362Thymol acetate0.1RRI, MS
1373Carvacrol acetate–RRI, MS
1377α-Copaene0.1RRI, MS
1380β-Bourbonene0.1RRI, MS
1391β-Elemene–RRI, MS
1421β-Ylangene3.3RRI, MS
1434β-Gurjunene0.1RRI, MS
1441Aromadendrene0.6RRI, MS
1480γ-MuurolenetRRI, MS
1490β-Selinene0.1RRI, MS
1496Valencene0.1RRI, MS
1500α-Muurolene0.2RRI, MS
1514γ-Cadinene–RRI, MS
1523δ-Cadinene0.5RRI, MS
1531γ-BisabolenetRRI, MS
1533Nerolidol0.1RRI, MS
1539α-Cadinene0.3RRI, MS
1546α-CalacorenetRRI, MS
1578Spathulenol1.0RRI, MS, ST
1583Caryophyllene oxide1.3RRI, MS, ST
1654α-CadinoltRRI, MS, ST
Total99.5

  1. RRI, relative retention indices calculated against n-alkanes. % calculated from the FID chromatograms. T, trace (<0.1%). Identification methods: RI, identification based on the retention times (tR) of genuine compounds on DB5 column; MS, identified on the basis of computer matching of the mass spectra with those of the Wiley and NIST and İLMER libraries and comparison with literature data. ST, co-injection with standard compounds. GC analyses were replicated three times (mean RSD% value is 0.05).

When the chemical composition pattern of the species was compared with the other well studied and commercially important Anatolian Satureja species, S. thymbra and S. cuneifolia, an important difference was observed, which is the distribution ratio of carvacrol and thymol in the species. Thymol, carvacrol, and p-cymene compositions of the essential oil of the genus are important tools for chemotaxonomic evaluation of the genus. Thus, when we checked the previous reports of the species of the genus, we found that the thymol content was reported between 0.23% and 57.89%, while the carvacrol content was 2.39–62.82% [18] in S. cuneifolia, whereas the thymol and carvacrol percentages of S. thymbra was reported as 13.16% and 40.15%, respectively. The p-cymene content of those species were found in moderately low amounts, together with α-terpinene and γ-terpinene as expected, possibly due to the biosynthetic pathway of carvacrol and thymol through α-terpinene and γ-terpinene [18], [19].

In addition, the lower content of carvacrol, thymol, and high content of p-cymene were reported in Satureja macrantha and S. intermedia from Northern Iran [20], [21]. It was also observed in S. hortensis from Iran, which grows in strong continental climate regions [22]. The thymol and carvacrol contents of S. hortensis from different locations of Turkey were reported, and the geographical deviations were discussed [23]. Moreover, changes in carvacrol content of S. cuneifolia during pre-flowering, flowering, and post-flowering periods were reported [24]. In that study, the thymol content of S. hortensis was reported as 0.1–43.0%. Finally, the chemical compositions of S. spinosa from Turkey, having one of the lowest level of thymol and carvacrol, were reported as 0.1–2.2% for carvacrol and 1.2% for thymol [25]. According to those data, we can clearly observe the chemotype variations of the species of Satureja in Turkey and Iran.

When looked at Table 1, as a result of relatively lower content of carvacrol and thymol, high content of p-cymene and γ-terpinene are observed. The lower amount of syntheses of carvacrol and thymol by species might be due to the strong continental climate conditions of the Hakkari province of Turkey similar to the Iranian species [22]. The environmental conditions and genetic patterns may affect the biosynthetic pathway of the species, and thus, higher contents of p-cymene and γ-terpinene were observed as chemotaxonomic markers of the species. Satureja metastasiantha could be considered as a new source of p-cymene and γ-terpinene together with carvacrol and thymol.

Apart from the first chemical report of the species, we also evaluated the antioxidant, acetylcholine, and butyrylcholine esterase activities of the essential oil and methanol extract of the species.

The antioxidant activities of the essential oils and the methanol extracts were determined by two methods, e.g. DPPH free radical scavenging activity and cupric ion reducing antioxidant capacity. DPPH free radical scavenging activities were determined by serial of concentrations of the tested materials in 10, 25, 50, and 100 μg/mL, where α-tocopherol, BHA, and BHT were used as positive controls. DPPH free radical scavenging activity results showed that the essential oil extracts do not have significant antioxidant capacity. The methanol extracts of 50 and 100 μg/mL displayed better antioxidant capacity than the other concentrations as expected because of possible higher content of phenolic compositions.

Antioxidant capacities of the essential oil and the extracts of the species in Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity values were determined by CUPRAC method via Cu2+-neocuproine (Cu2+-Nc) reagent as a chromogenic oxidizing reactant. The cupric ion (Cu2+) reducing capability of the essential oil and methanol extract of the species are summarized in Table 2. Cupric ion reducing capacities of the essential oil, methanol extracts, and the standard compound, α-tocopherol, were determined. In spite of the radical scavenging capacity of the cupric ions, the reducing capacities of the essential oils and methanol extract were found moderately higher than DPPH, and the results were almost equal in both essential oil and methanol extract. However, the cupric ion (Cu2+) reducing capacity of both was not found to be as powerful as α-tocopherol (Table 2).

Table 2:

Antioxidant capacity of the essential oil and the methanol extract of S. metastasiantha.

Tested materialDPPHTEACCUPRAC
10 μg/mL25 μg/mL50 μg/mL100 μg/mL
Essential oil0.5±0.61.6±0.53.4±1.210.7±0.60.52±0.09
MeOH extract9.5±1.518.8±3.235.0±2.060.8±2.5050±0.06
BHA82.1±1.685.8±0.886.3±0.286.7±0.2–
BHT40.8±1.859.3±0.465.1±0.379.0±0.6–
α-Tocopherol63.0±0.0285.9±0.0286.2±0.0286.1±0.020.95±0.06
DMSO0.4±0.000.4±0.000.4±0.000.4±0.000.11±0.00

  1. DPPH, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; TEAC, Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity; MeOH, methanol; BHA, butylated hydroxyanisole; BHT, butylated hydroxytoluene; DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide.

AChE has an important role in the central nervous system, which catalyzes the cleavage of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft after depolarization [26]. BChE is found in glial cells, neurons, and neuritic plaques [27]. Galanthamine is used frequently to treat the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease as an AChE inhibitor [28], which hydrolyses the acetylcholine compound involved in the communication between synapses in the nervous system. Thus, it is very important to cure Alzheimer’s disease. BChE is synthesized in liver and released into the circulation. The fundamental role of BChE is the hydrolysis of succinylcholine, which is used as a local anesthetic and a short-term muscle relaxant before a general anesthesia in surgery. AChE has a rapid and effective hydrolysis capacity against a natural neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, while BChE can do this against synthetic substrates, mainly butyrylcholine [29].

If any problem arises in this pathway, then, Alzheimer’s disease may take place, which could be treated using cholinesterase inhibitors to bring the acetylcholine level to normal. Thus, to find new AChE and BChE sources is very important, and one of the best sources is the plant Kingdom, especially unreported species such as S. metastasiantha. In this study, we found that the AChE inhibition levels of essential oil and methanol extract are almost the same but three times lower than the standard galantamine (Table 3). However, the essential oil content of the species was found more active than the methanol extract.

Table 3:

Anticholinesterase activity of the essential oil and the methanol extract of S. metastasiantha.

Tested materialsAChE % inhibitionBChE % inhibition
Essential oils30±2.118.1±0.7
Methanol extract29.9±5.97.2±2.8
Galantamine96.8±1.383.3±0.7

  1. Concentrations of all tested materials are used as 200 μg/mL. AChE, acetylcholinesterase; BChE, butyrylcholinesterase.

The antimicrobial activity of the essential oil and the methanol extract of the species were evaluated as MIC against E. coli ATCC 25922, S. aureus ATCC 25923, C. albicans ATCC 10231, and M. smegmatis. Unfortunately, only the essential oil of the species showed a moderate activity against S. aureus as 128 μg/mL in the tested organisms. The results of the antimicrobial and antifungal activity tests are given in Table S1 in the Supporting Information.

4 Conclusion

Herein, the chemical compositions of the essential oil of S. metastasiantha along with the antioxidant capacity, anticholinesterase (AChE), BChE, and antimicrobial activities and antifungal properties of the essential oil and methanol extract are reported for the first time. According to our results, the species could be considered as a new source of p-cymene, carvacrol, thymol, and γ-terpinene. Moderate antioxidant capacity and anticholinesterase and BChE activities were determined with essential oil and methanol extract of the species. However, any remarkable antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of the species, except S. aureus, was not observed (see Table S1). This lower antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of the species compared with the other members of the genus might be due to the result of the lower carvacrol and thymol contents.

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Supplementary Material

The online version of this article offers supplementary material (https://doi.org/10.1515/znc-2019-0208).

Received: 2019-11-12
Revised: 2020-01-24
Accepted: 2020-01-30
Published Online: 2020-03-12
Published in Print: 2020-07-28

©2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Editorial
  3. Essential oils
  4. Letter
  5. Bioinsecticides based on plant essential oils: a short overview
  6. Review Articles
  7. The application of essential oils as a next-generation of pesticides: recent developments and future perspectives
  8. Selected essential oils and their mechanisms for therapeutic use against public health disorders. An overview
  9. Potential use of essential oils to enhance heat tolerance in plants
  10. Essential oils of spontaneous species of the genus Lavandula from Portugal: a brief review
  11. Research Articles
  12. Analysis of the essential oil composition of three cultivated Nepeta species from Iran
  13. Effect of geographical origin on yield and composition of cone essential oils of Cedrus libani A. Rich. growing in Lebanese protected areas and variability assessment in comparison with literature survey
  14. Helichrysum araxinum Takht. ex Kirp. grown in Italy: volatiloma composition and in vitro antimicrobial activity
  15. Composition of the essential oil of Satureja metastasiantha: a new species for the flora of Turkey
  16. Bergamot essential oil nanoemulsions: antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity
  17. Toxicology study of fraxinellone as ovicidal agents against Mythimna separata Walker and Bombyx mori Linaeus
  18. Rapid Communication
  19. Essential oil composition of three Cryptocarya species from Malaysia
https://doi.org/10.1515/znc-2019-0208
Keywords for this article
AChE; antimicrobial; antioxidant; carvacrol; essential oil; Satureja metastasiantha

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Editorial
  3. Essential oils
  4. Letter
  5. Bioinsecticides based on plant essential oils: a short overview
  6. Review Articles
  7. The application of essential oils as a next-generation of pesticides: recent developments and future perspectives
  8. Selected essential oils and their mechanisms for therapeutic use against public health disorders. An overview
  9. Potential use of essential oils to enhance heat tolerance in plants
  10. Essential oils of spontaneous species of the genus Lavandula from Portugal: a brief review
  11. Research Articles
  12. Analysis of the essential oil composition of three cultivated Nepeta species from Iran
  13. Effect of geographical origin on yield and composition of cone essential oils of Cedrus libani A. Rich. growing in Lebanese protected areas and variability assessment in comparison with literature survey
  14. Helichrysum araxinum Takht. ex Kirp. grown in Italy: volatiloma composition and in vitro antimicrobial activity
  15. Composition of the essential oil of Satureja metastasiantha: a new species for the flora of Turkey
  16. Bergamot essential oil nanoemulsions: antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity
  17. Toxicology study of fraxinellone as ovicidal agents against Mythimna separata Walker and Bombyx mori Linaeus
  18. Rapid Communication
  19. Essential oil composition of three Cryptocarya species from Malaysia
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