NACHWEISE AUS EUGEN DÜHRING, CURSUS DER PHILOSOPHIE (1875)

Nietzsche’s note Nachlass 1885, 44[8], KSA 11.707–8, here identified as written in response to Eugen Dühring’s Cursus der Philosophie (1875), constitutes his main reaction to a defense of anarchism and it is the stimulus for his many comments about anarchists and anarchism during and after 1885 (as it is important for his views of socialism, anti-Semitism, “modern ideas” and several other themes). This note is Nietzsche’s first discussion of anarchism and seems to stand behind almost all of the later ones. However, neither this note, nor Nietzsche’s later discussions of anarchism, should be misunderstood as cases of plagiarism or as merely a response to Dühring’s book. Rather, reading Dühring allowed Nietzsche to express and develop his thoughts about anarchism and related phenomena.

Nietzsche bought the book in 1875, as well as many other books by Dühring, and he seems to have read it in 1881, 1883 and 1885 (as well as possibly other times). On July 7, 1881, Nietzsche asked his sister to send him a copy, commenting: “das ist zum Lachen für mich” (no. 121, KSB 6.99), but by July 19, he complained that it had not yet arrived (no. 129, KSB 6.106). His copy of the book is in his library and contains a medium amount of annotations (but no words or comments) made with two different sorts of pens, which seem to correspond well with his reading in 1881/83 and 1885. Nietzsche’s response to the reading in 1881/83 seems to mainly have concerned physics and our view of the physical universe, while the reading in 1885 concerned more social, political and practical philosophical themes.

Nachlass 1885, 44[8], KSA 11.707, Z. 25–30:

Das neue Japan.

Ich las mit vieler Bosheit der Hintergedanken, was ein deutscher Anarchist unter dem Begriff „freie Gesellschaft“ – – –

„Die freie Gesellschaft“ – alle Züge als groteske Wort- und Farben-Aufputzung einer kleinen Art von Heerdenthieren.

Vgl. Eugen Dühring, Cursus der Philosophie als streng wissenschaftlicher Weltanschauung und Lebensgestaltung, Leipzig 1875:

The first chapter in the fifth section, “Gemeinwesen und Geschichte,” of Dühring’s Cursus der Philosophie, bears the title “Freie Gesellschaft.” It covers pages 263–96 and consists of 14 subchapters.

The title of Nietzsche’s note, “The New Japan,” seems not to come from Dühring directly, for the latter seems not to mention Japan. Nietzsche rarely refers to Japan, and it is not clear what “Japan” represented to him.^[1] But the last time he referred to Japan before this note was in Nachlass 1884, 25[121], KSA 11.45–6, and under the title “Die zahme Barbarei” he seems to associate Japan with “(der revoltirende Plebejer) die Zunahme der sklavischen Tugenden und ihrer Werthe” – which possibly could explain why he chose the title “The New Japan.”

Dühring does not mention “herd” (Heerde), so that the use of the term, not surprisingly, refers to Nietzsche’s diagnosis of Dühring’s text. Nietzsche uses the term “herd” (and versions of it) frequently in Beyond Good and Evil and On the Genealogy of Morality (but also earlier), and we now know that he regarded Dühring’s text and philosophy as an example of it.

Nietzsche explicitly mentions “freie Gesellschaft,” associating the latter with both anarchism and socialism, in BGE 202 and 203 as well as in GS 356 and 377 (and at no other time), which is probably related to this reading of Dühring and to the note mentioned above.

Nachlass 1885, 44[8], KSA 11.708, Z. 1–2:

„Die Gerechtigkeit“ und die Moral der gleichen Rechte – die Tartüfferie der moralischen Prädikate.

Vgl. Eugen Dühring, Cursus der Philosophie als streng wissenschaftlicher Weltanschauung und Lebensgestaltung, Leipzig 1875, S. 267:

Dieser Sachverhalt reicht soweit, dass man, um über die Grundbeziehungen der politischen Gerechtigkeit ohne Missverständniss reden können, zeitweilig sogar das Wort Staat überhaupt, als mit der historischen Unterdrückungsform eng verwachsen, aufgeben muss, und zur Bezeichnung der gleichen und gerechten Verbindung den Ausdruck freie Gesellschaft anzuwenden wohlthut.

Both “Gerechtigkeit” and “gleiche Rechte” are major themes which Dühring discusses and/or mentions in this chapter as well as in other parts of the book and in his writings. For example, he speaks of “das Zukunftsbild des Gerechtigkeitsstaats” (302, cf. 267, 268, and 265).

Both the concept of justice and the concept of equal rights are themes that Nietzsche frequently discusses. As is well known, his views of punishment, revenge, ressentiment and justice were to a large extent developed from, as much as against, the views that Dühring expressed in almost all of his writings. Nietzsche possessed seven of his books and had most likely read all of them. Of special interest here are Nietzsche’s statements in BGE 203, as well as in TI, Skirmishes 34 and in GM, passim.

Nachlass 1885, 44[8], KSA 11.708, Z. 3:

„die Presse“, ihre Idealisirung.

Vgl. Eugen Dühring, Cursus der Philosophie als streng wissenschaftlicher Weltanschauung und Lebensgestaltung, Leipzig 1875, S. 413:

In einem nun völlig von der ökonomischen Gewinnseuche befreiten Zustande der Gesellschaft würden sich derartige Vermittlungen des literarischen Bedürfnisses unvergleichlich leichter gestalten lassen […]. Man würde mässiger sein und nur wahre Bedürfnisse, diese dann aber auch wahrhaft befriedigen.

Dühring discusses “die Presse” especially on pages 412–3 in a manner that Nietzsche is likely to have regarded as highly idealistic and utopian.

Nachlass 1885, 44[8], KSA 11.708, Z. 4:

„die Abschaffung des Arbeiters“

Vgl. Eugen Dühring, Cursus der Philosophie als streng wissenschaftlicher Weltanschauung und Lebensgestaltung, Leipzig 1875, S. 302:

Der Uebergang von der reinen Sklaverei zur Lohnarbeit ist eine Kleinigkeit in Vergleichung mit der Abschaffung des Ablohnungssystems selbst und der damit verbundenen Ausmerzung des Unterdrückungseigenthums.

This, like almost all the other quotations, is not a direct quotation but probably composed from memory.

Nachlass 1885, 44[8], KSA 11.708, Z. 5–6:

„es schlägt die vorarische Rasse durch“: und überhaupt die ältesten Arten von Gesellschaft

Vgl. Eugen Dühring, Cursus der Philosophie als streng wissenschaftlicher Weltanschauung und Lebensgestaltung, Leipzig 1875, S. 388:

Die Racen- und Stammeseigenthümlichkeiten bilden den wichtigesten physiologischen Unterschied, der überhaupt für die Vergesellschaftung fraglich werden kann.

This is a claim Dühring makes in the first chapter, “Physiologische und materielle Existenz” (386–401), in the seventh section, “Socialisirung aller Gesammtthätigkeiten,” combined with continual attacks on the Jews.^[2]

Nachlass 1885, 44[8], KSA 11.708, Z. 7:

der Niedergang des Weibes

Nietzsche had planned to write a full chapter on his view of women in Beyond Good and Evil, but in the end these notes were used for the second part of chapter seven, “Unsere Tugenden” (BGE 231–9). Nietzsche’s comments and views on women and related themes have many different sources, including Dühring, who spent much space discussing women and marriage in the book, including in this chapter, especially in subchapters 11 to 14 (mostly about forced marriages, Zwangsehen), under the title: “Vollberechtigung der Frauen im Gemeinwesen”.

That many of Nietzsche’s statements in Beyond Good and Evil, about women in general, are in response to Dühring can furthermore be seen in BGE 238, where Nietzsche in the first version exemplified those who fail to understand women “nach der Art von St. Mill oder Eugen Dühring” (see KSA 14.367).

Nachlass 1885, 44[8], KSA 11.708, Z. 8:

die Juden als herrschende Rasse.

Vgl. Eugen Dühring, Cursus der Philosophie als streng wissenschaftlicher Weltanschauung und Lebensgestaltung, Leipzig 1875, S. 392:

Knechte zu sein, oder aber Knechte zu machen, – das ist die Alternative der auf Unfreiheit angelegten Völker, und so ist es den mit den Juden nahezu dahin gekommen, dass sie eine gesellschaftliche Oberherrschaft indirecter Art prätendiren.

Dühring was openly anti-Semitic as well as a socialist and anarchist. Nietzsche’s summary possibly comes from statements such as the one quoted above (cf. also e. g. 388). Nietzsche explicitly refers to Dühring as representing anti-Semitism, socialism and anarchism in several notes and texts.

Nachlass 1885, 44[8], KSA 11.708, Z. 9:

Vornehme und gemeine Cultur.

This is surely Nietzsche’s own conclusion and description of what Dühring discusses. Nietzsche elaborates on this in the whole last chapter of Beyond Good and Evil, “Was ist vornehm?” (BGE 257–96), and he continues to discuss it in On the Genealogy of Morality as well as in many notes.

Dühring occasionally sets up a dichotomy as in the case of the opposition between what he calls the “Gewalt- und Unterdrückungsstaat,” on the one hand, and the “freie Gesellschaft” (e. g. 387), on the other. He uses the words “vornehm” and “aristokratisch” a few times, e. g. in regard to David Hume (447), but not in the sense Nietzsche does.

Nachlass 1885, 44[8], KSA 11.708, Z. 10–11:

der Gelehrte überschätzt: und eine triumphirende liebevollere und herrschaftliche Fülle des Herzens

Nietzsche discusses learnedness and scholars in the whole of chapter six of Beyond Good and Evil, “Wir Gelehrten” (BGE 204–13). Nietzsche’s summary of Dühring, as much as his comments on Dühring, in this note are so brief and vague that I have not looked for specific textual similarities. It is sufficient to note that Dühring emphasizes education and egalitarian “Bildung” for a new society in subchapter 4, “Gestaltung des Lernens,” of chapter 2, section six, and it is possible to see the presence of Dühring’s text and this note in BGE 204 and in GM I 14. Also, in GM III 26, Nietzsche refers to Dühring, anarchism and beautiful souls, which possibly is another reflection of this note.