Translating the applied model of deliberate imagery use to esports

Where (location) and when (situation)

One of the selling points of imagery has been that it can be used at any place and at any time. Where one images (e.g., the location) is often tied to when one images (e.g., the time frame) (Cumming & Williams, 2013). The most common locations are at home or at a venue and before, during or after practices and competitions. Athletes have also reported using when traveling and when injured. There are a few examples of imagery use in the One & Only Champion: T1 vs. DRX Worlds 2022 Finals hype video for League of Legends (https://youtu.be/ZOUPzLpNfxw). Deft recalls how he’s “dreamed” of being on the final stage, and around the 3 min mark you can see Faker with his eyes shut imaging the game. Here the imagery was used in a hotel room (where) before the competition (when).

Who (individual)

The effectiveness of imagery depends on who is doing the imagery. A number of individual characteristics should be considered and researchers in sport have shown that competitive level, experience, skill level, gender, and age are especially relevant (see Cumming & Williams, 2013 for a review). As an example, a person may have played a game for years (experience), but does not have a high ranking (skill level) or participate in elite esport tournaments (competitive level). Psychological factors like one’s confidence in their ability to use imagery (Short et al., 2005) are also important to consider.

Why (function)

As already described, it is important to differentiate between imagery function and imagery content. Function refers to why a person uses imagery, content is what is being imaged. It is equally important to differentiate function from outcome. The function (why a person uses imagery) may be to increase confidence but the imagery outcome (the changes that occurred after using imagery) may or may not be increased confidence. I recall an athlete telling me that he used imagery in a pre-game routine to improve his physical skills (the function), but the actual outcome was increased anxiety because after a few losses his performance did not improve and he wasn’t sure if he imaged “enough.”

Although the focus of imagery research has been on generating positive images, sometimes imagery (especially negative images) can have an adverse effect on performance. Imagery that creates too much anxiety, directs attention to irrelevant factors, is not controllable, leads athletes to image failure or mistakes, or makes the athlete overconfident and cocky contribute to negative outcomes (Murphy et al., 2008). An example of positive imagery is described by a Call of Duty player: “I use imagery to try and strategize where the opponent will end up and where they will try and push to or flank from. I also use it in how I will move and I image where they will be when I push up so I can make predictions to advance my play and out think the opponent to try and get the advantage in the round that I am playing in. I use a lot of imagery in the game on where they would be so I can have an edge/slight advantage when it finally comes down to the “fighting” part of the game.” Here, the function is to improve strategy. The outcome could be improved strategy resulting in more kills (performance statistic), but it might also be better decision-making, increased confidence, etc. Interestingly, the CG (or strategy) function was one of the toughest to research in sport based on the number of studies focused on it (Stewart & Hall, 2016). So far, in esports, the combination of skill-related images to form strategies that help athletes understand and problem solve various situations they encounter in esports seems likely to be one of the most important (see also Moritz & Knutson, 2023, Rerick & Moritz, 2023).

Meaning

What does the image mean to the person doing the imagery? This particular question is important, especially when imagery scripts are found and used instead of being created and personalized. The personal meaning associated with a particular image is essential for determining what content is most appropriate to facilitate a particular function (Cumming & Williams, 2013). Theoretical models about how imagery works also support the importance of imagery meaning and would be generalizable to esports (e.g., Ahsen, 1984, Holmes & Collins, 2001, Lang, 1979). In one of our research studies with golfers, we equated missing a putt to a negative (or debilitative) outcome (Short et al., 2002). We hypothesized that positive imagery (sinking the putt) would be associated with better performance and more confidence, and similarly, negative images (missing the putt) would be associated with poorer performance and less confidence. However, if you have golfed then you know that sometimes just getting closer to the hole is a positive outcome, and, in our initial operationalization, a ball not in the hole would have been a negative or debilitative image.

This point about imagery meaning is the “bridge” between function and content (Cumming & Williams, 2013). Imagery is a highly personalized experience that can mean different things to different people. Imaging yourself 2-star a base in Clash of Clans might be considered a poor outcome for an elite player, but a really good outcome for a person who is still learning attack strategies or is in a Clan War where their opponent seems formidable. Thus, a 2-star may be confidence-boosting for some and a blow to one’s confidence for others showing that the personal meaning of the image matters. Similarly, seeing yourself as the last person standing in a Fortnite battle maybe anxiety-producing and unrealistic, but making the final 5 or 10 maybe confidence-boosting and more realistic.

What (type) and how

Separating the imagery function (“why”) from the imagery content (“what”) has broadened the application of imagery. In the past, researchers, especially those doing qualitative work examining image content, tried to sort and classify the images people reported using into one of the categories from Paivio’s (1985) framework (CS, CG, MS, MG-A or MG-M), with the goal of creating an imagery “prescription” – i.e., if you use this image then you will get this. Ultimately, doing this confounded imagery content and function. As pointed out by Cumming and Williams (2013), there is a broad range of imagery types for athletes to draw from including role and character images (Nordin & Cumming, 2005) and people and places (Giacobbi et al., 2003; Munroe et al., 2000).

How imagery is used includes imagery characteristics like modality, perspective, angle, agency, deliberation, speed, duration, frequency, and color. Modality refers to the senses – what we see (visual), feel (kinesthetic), hear (auditory), smell (olfactory) and taste (gustatory). Bringing all the senses into an image is what makes it vivid. Images can be experienced from either a first person perspective (1PP; the image is viewed through one’s own eyes) or a third person perspective (3PP; the image is viewed from the position of an observer – like you were watching yourself on TV). 3PP imagery allows the imager to pick the angle of the imagery (front, side, above, or behind) and also allows people to image themselves and/or teammates, competitors, etc. For example, esports coaches could image doing a VOD (Video on Demand) review with their teams. Imagery perspective research will be especially interesting as different genres of esports offer different kinds of perspectives that may complicate the way we think of 1PP and 3PP in imagery research (Moritz & Knutson, 2023). Similarly, agency – the author or the agent of the behavior being imaged – is also interesting to think about in esport imagery research. Usually the focus is on one’s self or another person, but in esports it may include the avatar (Moritz & Knutson, 2023) which may, perhaps, tie into research on cosplay. One Apex Legends player wrote: “When I am using imagery, I feel like I am the character in the game. I like the game because the game is first person, and you feel like you are the character. It is like a zone where you don’t see anything else but the game and the first-person view makes you feel like you are in the game.” Here is another quote: “I also use imagery in a third person sense, where I imagine what my opponent is doing and how they are going to do it. This can be used without even seeing your opponent, and it is when I most often use this technique. It helps me predict what the enemy is doing, how they’re doing it and where, and it assists me in making decision in countering them in order to achieve victory. After using this long enough, it eventually becomes like an instinct of putting yourself in your opponent’s shoes or visualizing a projectile before it is tossed in order to make the best decisions you can with the information available to you.”

The notion of deliberate imagery practice is what differentiates imagery from daydreaming. Nordin and Cumming (2005b) proposed a continuum for imagery engagement from deliberate (carried out in a planned and systematic manner) to spontaneously generated imagery that may be internally or externally triggered. Based on their review, they concluded that more successful individuals will use imagery in the same structured and systematic fashion with which they approach physical practice (Cumming & Williams, 2013). It should be the same with esports. However, esport athletes have been known to practice much longer than those who engage in physical practices – sometimes up to 8 h a day (see Nagorsky & Wiemeyer, 2020).

Speed (slow motion and real time), duration, frequency, and color refer to how the imagery is experienced (Cumming & Williams, 2013). Besides deciding what content to image, a person needs to determine how they are going to image the content. How the image is experienced can also include internal or external cues to facilitate components of the imagery process. Cumming and Williams suggested to that a way to cue imagery is to provide individuals with a model to observe (either live or on video) to help an individual more easily generate vivid, accurate or complex images. Here is an example of how an Apex Legends player described his imagery – note the use of the professional model: “I imagine what would a pro player do, or where would the best position be to get the best angle/line of sight to win the gunfight against the team we are currently fighting. This means a great deal to me because watching these players play the game helps put pictures in my head and can be very useful when I am in a pinch or in a certain scenario where I am in a rough spot. This helps me win more fights in-game and gets me closer to placing higher and getting more wins overall. It also helps me understand what I need to do in tough situations and calms me down and helps me be more confident when things get tough.”

Also included in how imagery is used is the degree to which the imagery is structured and planned. For example, the number of sessions, what will be imaged in each session, how long sessions will last, etc. While there are a number of imagery application guidelines for sports (e.g., PETLEPP; Holmes & Collins, 2001) the adaptation of these to esports will need to be done (for an example, see Gregg, 2023).

Imagery ability

Imagery ability refers to the perceived ease (or difficulty) or forming (and retaining) vivid and controllable images in one’s mind (incorporating all senses – see, feel, hear, smell, and taste). Everyone has the ability to image but some people are better at it than others and these differences between high and low imagery ability will impact the effectiveness of an imagery intervention unless mitigated through imagery practice (Cumming & Williams, 2013). In the model, imagery ability directly influences what is imaged and how in that people are likely to select imagery content and characteristics that they find easier to generate and maintain. Also proposed is that imagery ability will mediate or moderate the relationship between imagery use and the outcomes achieved. Moving imagery ability research forward, like all imagery research in esports, will require new or adaptations to existing measures. This research will be extremely important as an individual’s ability to image is a key factor determining the effectiveness of imagery interventions and should not be overlooked (Cumming & Williams, 2013).

Outcome

People use imagery for an intended outcome – whether it is for affective (feelings), behavioral (performance), or cognitive (thinking) changes (Bandura, 1997) and sometimes there are unintended outcomes as well. It is important to note that is entirely possible to experience negative outcomes if negative/debilitative/unhelpful images are used (Short et al., 2002), and even no outcomes at all. In their Motor Imagery Integration Model, Guillot and Collett (2008) Guillot and Collet (2008) suggested four distinct categories of imagery outcomes: 1) motor learning and performance (e.g., acquire, practice and correct skills); 2) strategies and problem solving (e.g., acquire, practice and correct strategy; memorization, planning, creative thought, reviewing, evaluating); 3) psychological outcomes (e.g., attention/concentration, arousal, motivation, self-confidence, emotions, and anxiety; prepare for competition); and 4) injury rehabilitation (e.g., healing, strength, flexibility, and cope with pain and injury). Many of these outcomes have direct application to esports, and there maybe more. Consider the following description of imagery use by a Madden NFL player. “When playing the game at a competitive level there are many aspects of the game you, as a player, can’t control such as wide open dropped passes or fumbles. There were many tournament games I played in that you, as the player, had to be perfect to win, so when these types of random outcomes that you can’t control happen it starts to rattle you as a player, and you begin to play worse because of it. Instead of using imagery to calm myself down and understand that these types of things can happen while playing, I would often go into some sort of mental panic and begin thinking the worst and not moving onto the next play. I now use imagery to see these things happening, and it helps me to move on, clear my head and refocus. This is especially important for esports players because there are many things in the video game world that can glitch or bug out which causes you to make mistakes you wouldn’t normally make.” And another example: “When I am preparing to throw something like a grenade or some sort of ability, I use imagery to see where the object will hit, how it will interact and bounce off of the terrain, where it will land after and how it will affect my team. This strategy does not always help with my nerves, but it does really assist me in decision making, practicing strategies and improving my gameplay to move up in ranked matches.”

Conclusion: future research directions and application

This translation of the revised applied model of deliberate imagery use to esports is built on our best thinking from years of research in sport, dance, exercise and rehabilitation settings but every component – from measurement and beyond should be tested within esports. Research studies testing specific relationships from the model (and how the components interact) are encouraged. We give several examples in Moritz and Knutson (2023) and also highlight the ways that esport imagery may be unique. For example, the complexity of imagery perspective when playing a first person shooting game (or using VR), and the possibility of imaging an avatar as opposed to oneself.

For application purposes, when a person uses imagery in a deliberate and purposeful way, they should be doing it for a specific reason with an outcome in mind. The effectiveness of the imagery will depend on if what is imaged and how it is imaged is appropriate for the individual and the situation and imagery ability. Effective images are most likely when the outcomes achieved match the intended function (Cumming & Williams, 2013).