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The effect of language attitudes on proficiency in two heritage languages of Mountain Jews in Israel and the US

  • Ronald Shabtaev ORCID logo EMAIL logo , Joel Walters and Sharon Armon-Lotem
Published/Copyright: August 6, 2024
International Journal of the Sociology of Language
From the journal International Journal of the Sociology of Language Volume 2024 Issue 288

Abstract

Mountain Jews (MJs), native of the eastern Caucasus, mass immigrated in the 1990s to Israel and the US. MJs brought with them two heritage languages (HLs): Russian, the language of wider communication in the former Soviet Union, and Juhuri, their traditional home language. The present study explores the effects of HL attitudes on proficiency among 146 Israeli and 138 American MJs differing in age (M = 35.42) and in education level. A questionnaire based on a triadic attitude model comprised of Affective, Behavioral, and Cognitive items was used to examine the impact of language attitudes on self-rated Comprehension and Production of the two HLs. Results showed more positive attitudes toward Russian than Juhuri in both Israel and the US, with highest values registered for the Affective component. Attitudes toward Russian did not differ across countries, whereas attitudes toward Juhuri were more positive in the US. Attitudes predicted proficiency of Russian better than Juhuri and better in Israel than in the US. The findings are discussed in light of societal and cultural differences between Israel and the US, in terms of ethnolinguistic vitality and the status of the societal languages, as well as the implications of the unique attitude structure of the two HLs in the two countries.

Keywords: language attitudes; language proficiency; heritage language; Juhuri; Russian
Corresponding author: Ronald Shabtaev, English Literature and Linguistics, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel, E-mail:

Funding source: Bar-Ilan University

Appendices

Appendix A: Questionnaire

Background Information (please fill in the following fields)

  1. Name (open)

  2. Gender Male/Female

  3. City and neighbourhood

    (please specify your city and neighbourhood)

  4. DOB

    10–20 … 70–80

  5. Place of birth

    Derbent/Makhachkala/Baku, Azerbaijan/Nalchik/Russia/Cuba, Azerbaijan/Israel/Other

  6. Education level

    School/undergraduate academic degree/graduate degree/diploma

  7. Occupation/Profession

    Professional/General/Self-employed/School/Army/Student/

  8. Family size

    1–3, 3–7, 7+

1. Proficiency

Juhuri/Russian

  1. At what age did you learn these languages?

    0–5/6–12/13–18/18+

  2. Where did you acquire these languages?

    (more than one allowed)

    Home/school/irrelevant

  3. How frequently do you use each of the languages?

    1 (not at all) 2 (seldom) 3 (sometimes) 4 (often) 5 (everyday)

  4. How frequently do you hear each of the languages?

    1 (not at all) 2 (seldom) 3 (sometimes) 4 (often) 5 (everyday)

  5. How would you rate your proficiency in speaking, understanding, reading, writing in Juhuri?

    1 (least proficient) 2 (a little) 3 (average) 4 (fairly) 5 (fully proficient)

  6. How would you rate your proficiency in speaking, understanding, reading, writing in Russian?

    1 (least proficient) 2 (a little) 3 (average) 4 (fairly) 5 (fully proficient)

  7. How would you rate your proficiency in speaking, understanding, reading, writing in Hebrew?

    1 (least proficient) 2 (a little) 3 (average) 4 (fairly) 5 (fully proficient)

  8. With whom do you use these languages more frequently?

    (more than one allowed)

    Family and friends/strangers and public/work and studies/irrelevant

  9. Which do you consider to be your dominant language(s)?

  10. What language(s) does your partner speak?

  11. What language do you typically use with the following people?

    (more than one allowed)

    Children: oldest/youngest/Parents/Partner/Siblings

  12. Which language (s) do you use for mental calculations/arithmetic and for inner speech?

  13. Do you switch between languages within a conversation?

    1 (not at all) 2 (seldom) 3 (sometimes) 4 (often) 5 (everyday)

    Hebrew-Russian/Hebrew-Russian/Russian-Juhuri/Irrelevant

    Before moving on to the next chapter, please mark your year of immigration to Israel. If you were born in Israel, please mark accordingly.

  14. Date of Arrival

    1985–1990 … 2000–10; born here

2. Language Attitudes

In the next section, you will be presented with statements about each of the three languages of the Mountain Jews, and you will be asked to express your agreement with these statements on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Here you will find descriptive, personal and behavioural statements regarding the X language

1 (strongly disagree) 2 (disagree) 3 (neither agree not disagree) 4 (agree) 5 (strongly agree)

  1. X is nostalgic

  2. X is important to me

  3. I like speaking X

  4. X is interesting and impressive

  5. I enjoy hearing X

  6. I’m proud of knowing X

  7. I try to pass X on to my children

  8. I try to improve my X

  9. I try to use X whenever I can

  10. X is useful in my daily activities

  11. X is an important language

  12. X is prestigious and respected

  13. Knowing X indicates being educated

  14. X can contribute to success

  15. X is an easy language to learn

  16. X is culturally rich

Appendix B: Means (SDs) of participants’ scores on attitudinal items for each language in Israel and the US, t-tests conducted to examine differences between the cohorts for each item.

Component Item Language IL

n = 146		 US

n = 138		 t
Affective Enjoy hearing it Ju 3.71 (1.17) 4.12 (0.95) −3.32**
Rus 3.55 (1.11) 3.7 (1) −1.18
Important to me Ju 3.6 (1.23) 4.03 (1.03) −3.16**
Rus 3.91 (1.15) 3.9 (1.04) 0.1
Interesting and impressive Ju 3.51 (1.07) 4.07 (0.99) −4.58***
Rus 3.92 (0.97) 3.97 (0.87) −0.42
Like speaking it Ju 3.25 (1.26) 3.7 (1.08) −3.27**
Rus 3.71 (1.18) 3.88 (0.97) −1.34
Nostalgic Ju 3.75 (1.14) 4.04 (1.02) −2.31*
Rus 3.29 (1.18) 3.4 (1.03) −0.85
Proud knowing it Ju 3.73 (1.16) 3.93 (0.96) −1.54
Rus 3.98 (1.09) 4.14 (0.98) −1.29
Behavioral Try to improve it Ju 3.15 (1.34) 3.61 (1.1) −3.16**
Rus 3.51 (1.31) 3.83 (1.16) −2.18*
Try to pass it to children Ju 2.87 (1.34) 3.68 (1.17) −5.44***
Rus 3.82 (1.28) 4 (1.08) −1.32
Use it whenever I can Ju 2.66 (1.35) 3.16 (1.2) −3.26**
Rus 3.5 (1.27) 3.43 (1.14) 0.46
Cognitive Contributes to success Ju 2.6 (1.14) 3.01 (1.1) −3.09**
Rus 3.98 (1.03) 3.77 (1.02) 1.73
Culturally rich Ju 3.29 (1.06) 3.94 (1.11) −5.06***
Rus 4.08 (1.02) 3.83 (0.98) 2.04*
Easy learning Ju 2.73 (1.05) 2.62 (1.08) 0.87
Rus 2.82 (1.17) 2.68 (1.26) 0.98
Generally important Ju 3.29 (1.12) 3.93 (1.06) −4.95***
Rus 4.12 (0.94) 4.04 (0.93) 0.72
Indicates being educated Ju 2.73 (1.15) 2.99 (1.01) −1.97.
Rus 3.34 (1.29) 3.3 (1.29) 0.3
Prestigious and respected Ju 3 (1.06) 3.25 (1.03) −2.05*
Rus 3.82 (0.99) 3.59 (1.12) 1.87.
Useful Ju 2.34 (1.25) 2.73 (1.27) −2.6**
Rus 3.9 (1.2) 3.84 (1.2) 0.4

  1. p = *** < 0.001 < ** < 0.01 < * < 0.05. Ju, Juhuri; Rus, Russian; IL, Israel; US, United States.

Appendix C1: Correlations between attitudinal items and language comprehension and production in Juhuri and Russian in Israel and the US.

Israel US
Juhuri Russian Juhuri Russian
c p c p c p c p
Enjoy hearing it 0.29*** 0.42*** 0.46*** 0.41*** 0.04 0.01 0.09 0.11
Important to me 0.32*** 0.46*** 0.41*** 0.42*** 0.17* 0.05 0.35*** 0.36***
Interesting and impressive 0.11 0.23** 0.37*** 0.35*** 0.04 −0.08 0.19* 0.2*
Like speaking it 0.37*** 0.56*** 0.43*** 0.44*** 0.33*** 0.31*** 0.28*** 0.34***
Nostalgic 0.16: 0.17* 0.34*** 0.29*** 0.04 −0.02 −0.02 0.02
Proud knowing it 0.43*** 0.54*** 0.32*** 0.4*** 0.37*** 0.3*** 0.21* 0.24**
Try to improve it 0.27** 0.43*** 0.32*** 0.31*** 0.18* 0.07 0.13 0.1
Try to pass it to children 0.3*** 0.46*** 0.4*** 0.44*** 0.23** 0.15: 0.24** 0.21*
Use it whenever I can 0.28*** 0.49*** 0.38*** 0.39*** 0.34*** 0.3*** 0.22** 0.26**
Contributes to success 0.12 0.26** 0.3*** 0.29*** 0.08 0.06 0.15: 0.16:
Culturally rich 0.13 0.24** 0.41*** 0.36*** 0.14: 0 0.32*** 0.31***
Easy learning 0.22** 0.31*** 0.18* 0.14 0.12 0.16: 0.12 0.19*
Generally important 0.17* 0.34*** 0.27*** 0.26** 0.09 0.05 0.19* 0.18*
Indicates being educated 0.07 0.18* 0.27** 0.27*** 0.06 0.05 0.16: 0.16:
Prestigious and respected −0.01 0.12 0.39*** 0.32*** 0.06 0.06 0.24** 0.25**
Useful 0.32*** 0.43*** 0.52*** 0.52*** 0.22* 0.27** 0.31*** 0.31***

  1. C, Comprehension; P, Production. p = *** < 0.001 < ** < 0.01 < * < 0.05.

Appendix C2: Correlations between attitudinal components and age/education data.

Juhuri Russian
Affective Behavioral Cognitive Affective Behavioral Cognitive
Age 0.25** 0.28** 0.17* 0.23* 0.04 0.13
Education −0.01 −0.07 −0.18* 0.01 0 0.11

  1. p = *** < 0.001 < ** < 0.01 < * < 0.05.

Appendix D: Regressions of attitudinal items on measures of production and comprehension for Juhuri and Russian in Israel and the US.

Items IL US IL US
Juhuri Russian
c p c p c p c p
B t B t B t B t B t B t B t B t
Aff Enjoy hearing it −0.14 −1.06 0.11 0.87 – – – – 0.29 2.29* 0.06 0.55 – – – –
Important to me −0.04 −0.26 0.00 −0.04 – – – – 0.12 0.95 0.16 1.45 0.27 2.19* 0.23 1.52
Interesting and impressive – – −0.32 −2.5* – – – – −0.13 −0.80 −0.16 −1.15 – – – –
Like speaking it 0.18 1.39 0.29 2.54* −0.12 −0.67 −0.04 −0.26 −0.01 −0.10 0.09 0.85 0.07 0.50 0.23 1.52
Nostalgic – – – – – – – – 0.05 0.59 0.10 1.27 – – – –
Proud knowing it 0.36 2.59* 0.19 1.58 0.48 2.62** 0.20 1.19 −0.17 −1.18 0.08 0.66 – – −0.13 −0.90
Beh Try to improve it −0.05 −0.43 −0.05 −0.50 – – – – −0.01 −0.12 −0.12 −1.54 – – – –
Try to pass it to children 0.10 0.84 0.07 0.68 −0.07 −0.58 – – 0.20 2.13* 0.23 2.9** 0.00 0.05 – –
Use it whenever I can −0.10 −0.82 0.13 1.14 0.30 2.4* 0.19 1.65 −0.19 −1.71. −0.10 −1.03 −0.04 −0.37 −0.02 −0.17
Cog Contributes to success – – −0.14 −1.30 – – – – 0.06 0.46 0.03 0.27 – – – –
Culturally rich – – 0.13 1.10 – – – – 0.24 1.69. 0.23 1.93. 0.05 0.53 0.09 0.85
Easy learning 0.11 1.05 0.08 0.84 – – – – – – – – – – – –
Generally important – – −0.02 −0.18 – – – – −0.12 −0.80 −0.29 −2.22* – – – –
Indicates being educated – – – – – – – – −0.07 −0.88 −0.07 −1.06 – – – –
Prestigious and respected – – – – – – – – −0.05 −0.37 −0.12 −0.97 −0.03 −0.31 −0.04 −0.33
Useful 0.18 1.64 0.23 2.4* – – 0.16 1.74. 0.39 4.13* 0.41 4.98*** 0.11 1.16 0.18 1.74.
F(9,136) F(13,132) F(4,133) F(4,133) F(15,130) F(15,130) F(7,130) F(7,130)
4.71*** 7.52*** 7.01*** 5.47*** 5.45*** 7.58*** 3.86*** 4.7***
R2 = 0.24 R2 = 0.43 R2 = 0.17 R2 = 0.14 R2 = 0.39 R2 = 0.47 R2 = 0.17 R2 = 0.20

  1. IL, Israel; US, United States; Comp, Comprehension; Prod, Production; Aff, Affective; Beh, Behavioral; Cog, Cognitive. p = *** < 0.001 < ** < 0.01 < * < 0.05.

  1. Research funding: This work was supported by Bar-Ilan University (Presidential Scholarship for Outstanding Doctoral Students).

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Received: 2023-06-05
Accepted: 2024-01-02
Published Online: 2024-08-06
Published in Print: 2024-07-26

© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-2023-0059
Keywords for this article
language attitudes; language proficiency; heritage language; Juhuri; Russian

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Mobile borders
  3. Using language in boundary-making: nation-state building in the early years of the Turkish Republic (1927–1965)
  4. Hong Kongers and their languages: bordering, scale and identity
  5. Mobile borders and chronotope of homeland
  6. Humanitarianism, victimisation, and bordering processes: debating the refugee experience in the classroom
  7. Varia
  8. Attitudes towards Sardinian and Italian finally compared via the Matched-Guise Technique
  9. The effect of language attitudes on proficiency in two heritage languages of Mountain Jews in Israel and the US
  10. Sociolinguistic challenges and new perspectives on determining French speakers in Creole communities: the case of Haiti
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