Challenges and Strategies of Translating Arabic Novels into English: Evidence from Al-Sanousi’s Fiʾrān Ummī Hissa

2.1 Literary Translation and its Challenges in the Arabic Context

Literary translation goes beyond the referential meaning of words as it delves into the significance of words and expressions (Anani, 1997); therefore, it is seen as the most demanding type of translation (Landers, 2001). Ghazala (2013, p. 19) offers a comprehensive definition of literary translation as

a special type of translation that is concerned solely with translating literary genres and sub-genres into literary pieces of work in the TL, accounting for all features of literariness and creative style of the original, especially re-registration, semantic density, syntactic and lexical intricacies, polysemy, Displaced interaction, multi-layeredness, symbolism/hypersemanticization, aestheticism, figurativeness and, most importantly, tone: the involvement of human feelings, sentiments and emotions.

Recent developments in this field suggest a shift away from the traditional focus on linguistic text, highlighting the importance of the quality of the translation in the target language (TL) and the acceptance of the target text (TT) as a standalone product (Yousef, 2012). Therefore, translations are situated and evaluated within the intricate context of their receiving cultures. This recognition highlights that translation is not merely a simple process of converting words from one language to another but a dynamic interplay between two distinct linguistic and cultural systems (Anani, 1997). This shift has complicated the translation process, as instead of having only linguistic and stylistic constraints, translators must now deal with more challenging translation issues related to cultural and ideological values (Yousef, 2012).

Translators face many challenges when translating literary texts due to the frequent use of symbols and figurative language and sometimes the incorporation of literary and stylistic devices in these texts. In the Arabic context, literary translation goes beyond being a linguistic exercise; it involves navigating cultural nuances and societal beliefs embedded in the ST. Arabic literature is rich in historical, religious, and cultural references, making its translation particularly difficult. According to Lataiwish (1995), one of the notable characteristics of Arabic literary works, especially in fiction, is the frequent use of terms and expressions with religious meanings and connotations. This feature often has no parallel in English, resulting in the target reader’s potential misperception of the original use of the term.

Proper nouns and titles are another area that translators find difficult to render in literary works due to their social implications. They are often used to identify the social origin, class, or age group of the characters. Therefore, literal equivalence is sometimes bound to constitute either an unsuccessful translation or a misrepresentation of the intentions and message of the original Arabic text (Al-Hamly & Farghal, 2015).

Moreover, Arabic literature exhibits an abundant use of phatic and honorific expressions that have social functions, making it imperative for translators to realize the true and subtle social function of an utterance before any attempt at rendering it into the TL (Lataiwish, 1995). Translating such Arabic expressions into English as closely as possible often results in an unnatural rendition that deviates from the expectations of the English reader in some contexts.

Finally, idiomatic expressions and cultural references that lack direct equivalents in the TL are also among the primary challenges faced by translators of Arabic literature (Ali & Al-Rushaidi, 2017). Idioms or cultural fixed expressions are phrases or sayings that have specific meanings within a certain language or culture, and their interpretations often carry deeper and different meanings than the literal meanings (Larson, 1984). Baker (1992, p. 69) states that idioms are “frozen patterns of language which allow little or no variation in form” and “often carry meanings which cannot be deduced from their individual components.” Therefore, the meaning of an idiom is not the sum of the meanings of its parts or its constituents, making its translation a serious challenge. Furthermore, factors such as religion, traditions, ideologies, social factors, political issues, and geographic locations within societies impact the level of complexity of rendering idiomatic expressions from one language into another (Shojaei, 2012). Translators must strike a balance between maintaining the original’s aesthetic and cultural richness while ensuring comprehensibility for the target audience. This task requires employing strategies that enable translators to overcome difficulties that might be encountered in the process of translation (Al-Abbas & Al-Abbas, 2024; Dweik & Suleiman, 2013).

2.2 Translation Strategies

Mughazy (2016) discussed the significance of examining the translation process across various levels, from morpheme and word level to discourse analysis. He focused on translating Arabic texts into English, emphasizing the problems and challenges faced by translators. He suggests the following five strategies:

1. Translation by deletion: This strategy is used when the meaning can be conveyed without the deleted word.

2. Translation by substitution: This strategy is used when a specific element or term in the SL is replaced with a different but contextually appropriate term in the TT. For example, translation of units of measurement.

3. Translation by Morphological Unpacking: This strategy is used when translating complex morphological words. For example, “احمر وجهه” is rendered as “his face became red.”

4. Translation by paraphrasing: This strategy is also called rewording. Translators resort to this strategy to provide additional information to help readers recognize the referent of the source words in the absence of a direct equivalent. Moreover, paraphrasing can be used in cases of ambiguity and with Arabic names that have certain connotations.

5. Translation by transliteration: Translators employ English letters to write Arabic text in this strategy.

Translating idiomatic and culturally fixed expressions poses a unique set of challenges for translators, who strive to preserve the intended meaning while ensuring the expression remains culturally relevant in the TL. Baker (1992) suggests four strategies to deal with the translation of idiomatic expressions:

1. Use an idiom with similar meaning and form: by employing this strategy, the translator strives to identify an idiom in the TL that mirrors the one in the SL, both in terms of meaning and lexical components. Achieving success with this strategy is challenging since each language has features and devices to convey specific concepts. Nevertheless, despite the inherent difficulty, it is considered the best strategy for translating idioms. Example: in Arabic, the idiom “يلعب بالنار” can be rendered into English by a similar idiom “To play with fire.”

2. Use an idiom with a similar meaning but differing form: in this strategy, the intended meaning of the TL idiom aligns with that of the SL but with different lexical items. Example: “كل ممنوع مرغوب” can be rendered into English by the different idiom “forbidden fruit is the sweetest.”

3. Translation by paraphrase: This strategy is commonly used to translate idioms that do not have equivalents in the TL.

4. Translation by omission: this strategy is used when the meaning in the TL can be reached without translating the ST idiom. In this case, the translator can omit the idiom from the TL.

2.3 Review of Empirical Studies

Literary translation has attracted the attention of many scholars in recent years. Marabout (2010) investigated literary Arabic texts selected from Gibran Khalil Gibran’s Damaa wa Ibtissama. The primary objective of the study was to determine whether the aesthetic impact of the original Arabic texts is preserved when translated into English. The texts were analyzed in terms of lexical choices, sentence structure, and the use of metaphors and similes. The results showed that the translation strategies used were literal translation, transposition, omission, addition, expansion, and the avoidance of repetition, contributing to shaping the meaning, structure, and overall effect of the TT.

Similarly, Alwafai (2015) examined two Arabic translations of Ernest Hemingway’s 1952 novella The Old Man and the Sea to explore the challenges and strategies involved in translating literary works into Arabic and propose guidelines for improving Arabic translation practices. The analysis was based on Baker’s theory of equivalence, focusing on two levels: word-level equivalence and collocational equivalence. The findings revealed that cultural-specific terms could be tackled in various ways, such as paraphrasing, rewording, lexicalizing new concepts, and cultural adaptation. The study recommended that translators consider both contextual and cultural factors in SL and TL and ensure naturalness and readability for the TT.

Al-Amayreh (2019) investigated two different translations of Hamlet, focusing on the varied strategies employed by translators in rendering the text into literary Arabic. The sample consisted of 15 translated excerpts by two skilled translators in order to compare their strategies. The findings demonstrated that the translators utilized reduction, addition, elaboration, and transposition to render the literary work in Arabic.

Zayed et al. (2021) explored the application of Newmark’s (1988) models to uncover the translation methods employed in rendering idiomatic expressions in the novel Men in the Sun. The researchers analyzed 41 Arabic idioms from the novel as a basis for validating their findings. The findings revealed that the translator’s most commonly employed translation strategy was paraphrasing, followed by literal translation. Translating an idiom with a TL idiom that is similar in form but different in meaning ranked third, while translating an idiom with a TL idiom that is similar in form and meaning was the least frequently used strategy for translating idioms in this novel. Paraphrasing and translating idioms with similar forms and meanings were determined to be the most suitable strategies for rendering Arabic idioms into English.

Similarly, Al-Batineh and Alsmadi (2021) examined Roger Allen’s English translation of Naguib Mahfouz’s Khan al-Khalili. The data consisted of different culture-specific items including Egyptian food, customs, holidays, and clothing. The analysis revealed that Allen not only reflected the source’s realistic narrative but also preserved the distinctly Egyptian cultural elements in the TT, resulting in a foreignized version of the novel that introduces readers to Arab culture.

Alhamshary (2021) analyzed culture-bound expressions in Naguib Mahfouz’s The Thief and the Dogs. The study provided a rich comparative translation study focusing on strategies, similarities, and differences between the Arabic and English translations of both translators: Trevor Le Gassick and Mohamed Badawi. The findings revealed that seven of Baker’s (1992) strategies were employed, including translation by a more general term, translation by a more neutral/less expressive term, translation through cultural substitution, translation using a loanword or loanword with an explanation, paraphrasing with a related term, paraphrasing with unrelated terms, and translation by omission.

Rababah and Al-Abbas (2022) conducted a research endeavor concentrating on the issue of cultural incongruence within the literary translation of Alsanousi’s Saq Al-Bambu. The study examined the translation strategies employed to address these challenges, offering a wealth of illustrative examples that are classified into four main categories: social, religious, political, and cultural constraints. The findings were analyzed through the lens of Baker (1992) and presented various translation strategies, including translation by omission, the use of loanwords or the use of loanwords with explanations, as well as cultural substitutions.

By the same token, Al Saideen et al. (2022) explored the strategies adopted by two translators, Jubaili and Mola, in translating the English novel Lolita into Arabic. The research discussed the distinct translation strategies employed by each translator, and the results indicated that Jubaili’s approach leaned towards a faithful, literal translation, preserving the original themes and character portrayal. In contrast, Mola’s translation used explicit language and a more sensual tone, leading to a shift in themes and characterization, making the text more eroticized compared to the original.

Although many studies have explored the difficulties of literary translation between English and Arabic, this research is based on a novel that involves sensitive, intricate, and essential topics regarding Kuwait’s history. It revolves around two main events: the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the civil war between Sunnis and Shiites. This introduces many religious, political, and war-related terms associated with both events, posing a considerable challenge for translation. Furthermore, the author deeply depicts traditional Kuwaiti cuisine, the old way of living, and the Kuwaiti street that harmoniously merges Palestinian, Syrian, Indian, Egyptian, and Iranian cultures and diverse ethnicities. Additionally, translating culturally rich material like Fiʾrān Ummī Hissa requires utilizing creative translation strategies, as it includes national songs, numerous idioms and culturally fixed expressions, poems, and different Arabic dialects within the context of the novel. While the Arab reader might find such messages relatively easy to understand, they require creative translation strategies to facilitate understanding for non-Arab readers.

3.1 Sample of the Study

Fiʾrān Ummī Hissa presents important elements of Kuwaiti culture and traditions, exploring naming conventions, dialects, popular proverbs and idioms, poems, and traditional songs. Additionally, it focuses on the cultural diversity in Kuwaiti society and offers insight into other nations’ traditions.

3.2 Data Size and Analysis Approach

This research utilizes a qualitative approach to investigate and analyze the translation challenges encountered in rendering the Arabic novel Fiʾrān Ummī Hissa into English.

The researchers closely read the Arabic novel and its translated version, carrying out a thorough comparison. Forty-five examples were manually collected and thematically classified into four categories: religious, social, political, and cultural constraints. The data were analyzed using Mughazy’s (2016) typology and Baker’s (1992) translation strategies for dealing with idiomatic and culturally fixed expressions.

A comprehensive assessment of the translational choices and strategies was employed, facilitating a thorough exploration of the cultural, linguistic, and contextual difficulties faced during translation.

4.1 Social Constraints

Al-Sanousi presented deep social messages in Fiʾrān Ummī Hissa, which revolve around the past and present of Katkout, the protagonist, describing his childhood and adulthood in Kuwait. Such messages are delivered through many social events, interactions, and relationships that Katkout has with neighbors and relatives. Besides, Al-Sanousi incorporates the names of places and landmarks that form the foundational backdrop of his narration and reflect a significant social dimension. Table 1 presents examples of how the proper nouns, kinship terms, and places were rendered into English.

Example (1) presents the translation of the protagonist’s name, “كتكوت” which literally means “a chick.” The term “كتكوت” is also used in Arabic to describe small things or to call young children affectionately. The protagonist is called “Katkout” by his friend’s sister and appears to hold affection for her despite her being a few years older than him. The name seems to make Katkout angry, so he replies with “أنا مو أصغر عيالك” as an attempt to alert her to the minor age difference between them. In this example, the translator employed a transliteration strategy to render the proper name “كتكوت” as “Katkout.” Initially, the translator did not explain the meaning of the word “Katkout” but instead relied on the explanation that came later in Katkout’s response, “I’m not some little girl, you know,” which can explain that she referred to him using a term implying that he is younger than her. Although the translation of “أنا مو أصغر عيالك” into “I’m not some little girl, you know” manages to convey the age difference, it fails to reflect the accurate meaning of “Katkout.”

Example (2) represents a case of homonyms where the first mention of the word “صادق” was employed as a proper name, while the second is used as an adjective that means “honest.” The translator effectively conveyed the meaning of both the proper name and the adjective by using a transliteration strategy to render the proper name “صادق” into English and paraphrasing to explain the meaning of the adjective “ليس بصادق” which was rendered as “isn’t as truthful as his name suggests.” Although the meaning was accurately conveyed in English, the translation failed to maintain the homonymous effect of the Arabic sentence. In Example (3), the ST contains the proper name “صالح” which literally means “righteous” and was transliterated into “Saleh.” This was followed by an expression containing the word “يصلحه” which is derived from the same root as the name “صالح,” namely, “صلح.” This expression is usually said as a wish for someone to come to their senses after a period of irrationality. Using derivations of the same root in this context may highlight the contrast between what the proper name and the following expression suggest. The translator paraphrased the expression as “God help him,” which does not seem to hold the same contrast indicated rhetorically in the Arabic expression.

Examples (4), (5), and (6) represent cases of rendering kinship terms into English. In Arab culture, titles are widely used as a mark of respect for elders or to denote specific relationships with family members. Consequently, titles are employed to denote relationships on the father’s and mother’s sides, and some are even used to address elderly neighbors or friends. For example, in the Arabic language, children use the word “خالة” to address their mother’s sister, and they may use the same title to address a stranger, an old lady, or an old neighbor. In the English language and culture, titles are used less frequently, typically reserved for close relatives like uncles and aunts, as it is common to use the nickname directly when dealing with friends or neighbors regardless of age.

In Example (4), the protagonist knocked on the door of their neighbor and addressed his female neighbor as “خالة أم فهد” out of respect, as she is the mother of his friend. The translator utilized the transliteration strategy, rendering the word into “Khala.” Although there is a direct equivalent to this term in English, which is “aunt,” it is not used as an addressing form. While “Miss” or “Mrs” could be used to show respect to elderly neighbors, titles are typically not used in such contexts in English culture. The translator also utilized a deletion strategy for the word “أم فهد” which followed the word “Khala,” since this naming system is not used in English. However, this can potentially lead to a misunderstanding of the meaning of the word “Khala” for the target audience, as they may perceive it as a new name rather than a title.

Similarly, Examples (5) and (6) present rendering male neighbors’ titles into English. In Example (5), the translator rendered the word “عم,” which is used in this context to show respect to elders, as “uncle,” although it typically refers to the brother of one’s father or mother in English or the husband of one’s aunt, which are both related to familial relations and are never used to address a neighbor. On the other hand, the translator used transliteration to render the same word as “am” in Example (6), which may lead the target readers to interpret it as part of the name since no explanation was provided indicating that it may be used as a title for calling male elders. Although this strategy may help preserve the cultural content of the text, using different strategies may demonstrate inconsistency in the approach used in the translation.

In Example (7), the translator also employed transliteration to render the word “Bayn” into English. After completing the sentence, the translator provided a definition of the word “Bayn” in a separate sentence: “Bayn-between two places.” However, inserting the definition as an explanatory note negatively affects the aesthetics of the literary text. Furthermore, the English translation fails to convey the nuanced meaning of the Arabic word “البين” which implies misfortune, since this river originated after the civil war between the Sunnis and the Shiites began, symbolizing division and tragedy.

Example (8) addresses the different pronunciations of the name of a place between the Sunni and Shiite sects. The actual name of the area is “Omariya,” in reference to Omar bin Khattab, the second Caliph after the Prophet, which indicates a Sunni symbol. Shiites, however, reject the second caliph and refer to him as Umair instead of Omar, which is used in Arabic to diminish the value of the name and, thus, call the area “Umairiya.” The translator rendered both words “Omariya” and “Umairiya” into English, successfully reflecting the difference in the pronunciation of each. However, the translation fails to convey the significance of each word and its meaning for each sect.

In Example (9), the author talks about where he spent his childhood, known as “Surra.” In Arabic, “Surra” refers to a bodily organ to which the fetus’s umbilical cord is attached, namely, the belly button. The author utilizes the word “السرة” as a homonym to provide a symbolic image, suggesting that his connection to his hometown is similar to the connection of a fetus to its mother’s womb through the umbilical cord. The translator transliterated the place name “السرة” into English and then explained the link in meaning to preserve the symbolic image.

4.2 Political Constraints

Fiʾrān Ummī Hissa novel stands on many political events that could pose political constraints on translators, as it presents events related to the First Gulf War and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, which are familiar to the Arab audience but require explanation to the target readers. It also examines the present narrative of the civil war that occurred in Kuwait between the Sunnis and the Shiite sects. Table 2 presents examples of how political events and war-related terms were rendered into English.

In Example (10), Katkout remembered the first time he heard about the Iranian revolution “الثورة الإيرانية,” and how he initially did not understand what the word ”ثورة“ meant in Arabic, so he associated it with the word “ثورة” that refers to a female bull. This confusion highlights an important aspect of Arabic, where the word “ثورة” is homonymous and has multiple meanings depending on context. On the one hand, it refers to a “revolution” which in this context relates to the Iranian revolution that had significant political and social consequences. On the other hand, “ثورة” also refers to a female bull, a term used in Arabic agricultural or pastoral contexts. Given this dual meaning, the translator faced a difficult decision in conveying the full spectrum of the word’s meaning in the target language. To preserve the complexity of the term, the translator chose transliteration, rendering “ثورة” as “Thawra” even though it has a direct equivalent in English “revolution.” This decision may have been motivated by the desire to maintain the homonymic nature of the original word and to subtly underscore the ambiguity Katkout felt upon first encountering the term. Transliteration allowed the translator to capture the word’s phonetic form while simultaneously preserving its potential for multiple interpretations.

However, while the choice of “Thawra” may have successfully communicated the homonymic aspect of the Arabic word, it fell short in conveying the deeper cultural and historical significance of the term “Iranian Thawra” to the target audience. The term “Thawra” in the context of the Iranian Revolution evokes specific historical events and political associations that may not be easily understood by a non-Arabic-speaking audience. Moreover, the translation failed to address the correct meaning of the Arabic word “ثورة..” The word “ثورة” in Arabic includes the feminine suffix “ة” but this form does not correspond to the English term “female bull,” as the English equivalent is “cow.” While “female bull” could be an attempt to reflect the gendered nature of the Arabic word, it does not accurately convey the English equivalent of “ثورة,” which would have been more culturally appropriate if rendered as “cow.”

In Example (11), the translator transliterated the word “دخول,” followed by its English equivalent “entry” to clarify the meaning. The word “دخول” has a significant meaning to Kuwaitis, particularly during the early days of the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, as this word evokes memories of the complicated and fraught political situation at the time, with many Kuwaitis unsure about the intentions of the Iraqi leadership. At that time, Kuwaitis placed trust in the Iraqi president, doubting that his entry would end up in the invasion of Kuwait. Also, the word “دخول” is used by many Arabs when recounting the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Thus, transliterating this word is considered effective, especially when accompanied by its English translation, as it helps preserve the original meaning while making it accessible to the target audience. The inclusion of the English translation provides readers with a clear understanding of the term’s significance in the context of the invasion. However, the choice of transliteration emphasizes the cultural and historical weight of the term, allowing the translator to preserve the nuance that would otherwise be lost in a direct translation. Again, an inconsistency in the translation approaches is evident. In Example (10), the translator employed a transliteration strategy without offering an explanation, whereas in Example (11), the translation was provided.

Example (12) illustrates a translation of a war-related term. During the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, some countries allied with Iraq in its invasion of Kuwait, and these countries are referred to in Arabic as “دول الضد.” In this example, the translator paraphrased this expression to emphasize the negative side of the invasion. Thus, the term “دول الضد” was translated as “countries that opposed your liberation.” This choice reflects an attempt to capture the hostility associated with those countries from the Kuwaiti perspective by explicitly linking them to the obstruction of Kuwait’s freedom. It is worth mentioning that in the subsequent lines, the author re-mentioned “دول الضد,” and the translator rendered the expression differently as “opposing countries.”

In Example (13), the translator’s choice to transliterate “القادسية” as “AlQadisiya” without further explanation introduces a gap in conveying the term’s layered historical, political, and cultural connotations to the target audience. The term “Al Qadisiya” is not only a reference to the First Gulf War but is deeply embedded in the collective historical memory of Muslims, especially Arabs. The Battle of Al Qadisiya, which occurred in 636 CE, was a critical battle between the Muslim forces and the Sassanian Persian Empire, marking the end of Persian dominance in the region and the spread of Islam into Persia. This historical event holds significant symbolic weight as a powerful Muslim victory, often evoked in Arabic culture to signify triumph against overwhelming odds.

In the context of the First Gulf War, Saddam Hussein invoked “Al Qadisiya” as a parallel to his own military campaigns, positioning himself as “بطل القادسية” or “the hero of Al Qadisiya.” This association framed the Iraq–Iran war as a modern continuation of ancient Islamic conquests, portraying Saddam as a defender of Arab and Muslim pride against a Persian adversary. Thus, when the translator simply rendered “بطل القادسية” as “the hero of AlQadisiya” English-speaking readers were not provided with this rich historical and ideological backdrop, which would have helped them understand Saddam Hussein’s self-styled image and the cultural resonance of the term among Arabs. Without this additional context, the English translation lacks the full historical and symbolic weight that the original Arabic phrase conveys, potentially leading to misunderstandings or a lack of engagement with the text’s cultural significance.

4.3 Cultural Constraints

Saud AlSanousi in the Fiʾrān Ummī Hissa novel excels in capturing the cultural dimension of Kuwaiti society by portraying characters from different generations, highlighting Mama Hissa’s character as a grandmotherly figure, presenting old Kuwaiti customs and traditions through her words and actions. Additionally, the author brilliantly presents the Kuwaiti community and its diversity across two periods, separated by 20 years. Thus, the richness and depth of the novel’s cultural dimension pose a challenge for the translator in accurately rendering the cultural terms and reflecting customs and traditions.

4.4 Religious Constraints

The divine religions and the various religious sects that follow them encompass many unique terms and expressions specific to their respective beliefs, setting them apart from others. These religious terms and expressions may lack direct equivalents in other languages, posing challenges for translators in accurately conveying their meanings and connotations into the TL. Table 7 addresses several religious terms and expressions collected from the novel and presents how the translator rendered them.

Example (38) discusses the name “عبد النبي” which is commonly used by the Shiite sect. In Arabic, the word “عبد” is typically associated with names related only to God in Sunni beliefs, while in Shiite, it can be used before the name of the prophet and some of his family members. Therefore, within the Arabic language and among Muslims, it is evident that a person with the name “عبد النبي” is likely a Shiite believer. The translator employed translation by transliteration to render the name “عبد النبي” into “Abdul Nabi,” along with paraphrasing to explain the meaning of the name to the target readers by “Slave to the prophet.” The translation effectively conveyed the meaning of “Slave to the prophet” since, in Islam, it refers to someone who devoutly adheres to the teachings and guidance of Prophet Muhammad. However, the additional explanation provided by the translator states, “They don’t worship God; ‘they’ worship the Prophet and his family.” is incorrect. This implies that the translator may not be familiar with the beliefs of other sects. It is important to know that Muslims, regardless of their sects, worship Allah alone, and in Shiite beliefs, the word “Abdul” is used to denote obeying and respecting the prophet and his family, not worship.

Example (39) presents several terms related to Sunni and Shiite sects. It describes Katkout’s journey through the Kuwait streets during the civil war between Sunni and Shiite believers. Along the way, he encountered many phrases written on walls, expressing support or opposition to various sects. The translator used paraphrasing to clarify that these phrases were written: “in turns by Sunni and Shia extremists.” Here, the translator effectively uses the word “Extremist” to preface subsequent phrases that include curse words and expressions of hatred typically associated with extremists. The first phrase is about “Aisha,” who is commonly known as “Mother of the believers.” Although the Arabic phrase did not include the word “عائشة,” the translator successfully introduces the concept to the target readers by adding “AISHA.” In the second and third phrases “اللعنة على النواصب” and “الموت للروافض” the translator omitted the words “النواصب” and “الروافض,” and employed paraphrasing strategy to explain the meaning of each word. Consequently “النواصب” was rendered as “THOSE WHO GO AGAINEST THE PROPHET’S HOUSEHOLD” and “الروافض” as “THOSE WHO REFUSE TO ACCEPT THE PROPHET COMPANIONS.” While providing definitions was necessary to inform the readers about these groups, deleting the group names may not have been a successful approach as both words were frequently used later in the novel. The translator opted for transliteration in later occurrences to render them (as in Example (40)), indicating inconsistency in the translation approach.

In Example (40), the translator utilized transliteration to render “رافضة” as “Rafida.” Besides, she effectively introduced the target readers to the Prophet's companions by adding “Abu Baker, Omar, and Uthman.” This addition was beneficial considering that Caliph Omar’s name was referenced frequently throughout the novel.

In Example (41), the translator utilized paraphrasing to introduce the readers to the significance of the name Omar, indicating that it is “a symbol for the Sunni sect and that Umair was short for Mus’ab Bin Umair, a Shia symbol.” However, this addition resulted in incorrect information, as Mus’ab Bin Umair was martyred in the Battle of Uhud, which occurred before the emergence of sects in Islam. As previously mentioned, “Umair” is actually a diminutive form of the name “Omar” used with the intention of disrespecting the name. This highlights another example of the translator’s unfamiliarity with Muslim sects’ beliefs.

Example (42) illustrates a case where the same religious term has been rendered in two different ways. Initially, the word “تتوضأ” has been rendered as “Do ablutions” by employing paraphrasing using a related word while in the next occurrence, it was transliterated as “Wudu.” The translator’s intention of providing both an equivalent term and the transliterated version may have been to familiarize the target readers with this religious terminology. However, this may cause confusion for the target readers, as they may not immediately recognize that “wudu” and “do ablutions” convey the same meaning. Additionally, the translator employed paraphrasing to render the phrase “في غير وقت الصلاة” as “even though she was just going to bed and not praying.” The translation is considered inaccurate as “في غير أوقات الصلاة” includes times other than bedtime. Therefore, a more precise rendering would be “out of praying time.”

In Example (43), Mama Hissa prayed to God, asking for the safe return of her son from prison in Iraq, referring to the story of Prophet Yunus, who returned safely from the whale stomach as mentioned in the Quran. The translator applied the omission strategy, deleting “ألا من“ from “ألا يا من أعاد يونس من بطن الحوت” as “Yunus who returned from the whale’s stomach.” However, this altered the tone of the phrase, as the Arabic phrase is a supplication begins with “يا من” which means “O God,” whereas the English translation appears as a statement about someone called “Yunus.” Besides, the translator did not provide an explanation to clarify who “Yunus” is, which may leave the target readers confused and unable to understand the intended meaning.

Example (44) discusses a religious occasion specifically associated with the Shiite sect and with some Sunnis as well, known as الأربعينية“.” This event occurs on the fortieth day after someone’s death, when the family members and mourners gather, just like on the day of the deceased’s death. The translator opted for transliteration to render the Arabic word “الأربعينية” as “Arba’eeniya.” Additionally, the translator added the word “Shitte” to ensure that the readers understand that “Arba’eeniya” is a Shiite mourning ceremony. This addition effectively conveys the specific religious context, even though the “Arba’eeniya” gathering is known among some Sunnis as well. In the context of the novel, it was portrayed as an event specifically associated with the Shiite sect, and therefore, adding the term “Shiite” accurately conveys the intended meaning.

Example (45) includes the Arabic idiom “رفعت الأقلام وجفت الصحف,” which is derived from a prophetic hadeeth. This idiom indicates the completion of a work, an event’s conclusion, or the termination of responsibility. In the novel context, Katkout employed this idiom upon hearing people associating his group (the Fuada kids’ group) with atheists as an acknowledgment of surrender and acceptance of the inability to fix or change people’s beliefs. The translator rendered this idiom by using two different expressions: “Pens down and ink dried” and “Too little too late.” “Pens down” aligns as an idiom with a similar meaning and form, conveying the idea of completing a written work or a task. “Too little too late” aligns as an idiom with a similar meaning but a different form, implying that whatever was done is not enough to make a difference because it occurred too late. Both idioms can convey the intended meaning but with less expressive meaning compared to the original Arabic idiom. Translating the idiom by “ink dried” lacks familiarity among the target audience and cannot be considered as an accurate translation.