Abstract
This article provides an overview of the field of language learning strategies, focusing on definitional and conceptual issues as they relate to strategy use in formal education settings. The article first provides evidence of the conflation of language learning strategies with concepts related to self-directedness. It provides evidence via a corpus-based analysis of published papers over time to illustrate that the field has moved away from instructed settings and towards a view of learner agency and self-regulation. We argue that this is a dangerous trend for language education researchers, as current definitions minimize the role of the teacher and classroom contexts in influencing strategic behavior in their students. A conceptualization and subsequent definition that does not stigmatize or exclude learners who are not self-directed, for whatever reason(s), is crucial to advance the field. As a solution, we propose that self-regulation be defined as a dynamic characteristic of learning strategies in order to allow for other-regulated strategies in research. Theorizing the interplay of the self and strategies on a continuum helps to emphasize the dynamic processes of strategic development, and the roles teachers and students in instructed settings can play in this process.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Richard Watson Todd for his comments on an earlier article of ours, some of which influenced the ideation of this current paper. We would also like to thank the editor and anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and incredible efficiency in providing feedback on this manuscript.
Appendix 1: Texts included in the PRE corpus
Chamot, A. U. 1987. The learning strategies of ESL students. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (eds.), Learner strategies in language learning, 71–83. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Chamot, A. U. & L. Kupper. 1989. Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. Foreign Language Annals 22(1). 13–24.
Chamot, A. U., L. Kupper & M. V. Impink-Hernandez. 1988. A study of students‘ learning strategies: Third year and final report. Rosslyn, VA: Interstate Research Associates. 1–20.
Okada, M., R. L. Oxford & S. Abo. 1996. Not all alike: Motivation and learning strategies among students of Japanese and Spanish in an exploratory study. In R. L. Oxford (ed.), Language learning motivation: Pathways to the new century, 106–119. Manoa, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
O’Malley, J. M. & A. U. Chamot. 1990. Chapter 1: Introduction. In J. M. O’Malley & A. U. Chamot (eds.), Learning strategies in second language acquisition, 1–15. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R. L. 1989. Use of language learning strategies: A synthesis of studies with implications for strategy training. System 17. 235–247.
Oxford, R. L. 1990. Chapter 1: Looking at language learning strategies. In R. L. Oxford (ed.), Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know, 1–35. Boston: Heinle.
Pressley, M., F. Goodchild, J. Fleet & R. Zajchowski. 1989. The challenges of classroom strategy instruction. Elementary School Journal 89. 301–342.
Richards, J., J. Platt & H. Platt. 1992. Learning strategies [Definition only]. In Longman dictionary of teaching and applied linguistics, 1st edn, Harlow: Longman.
Rubin, J. 1975. What the "good language learner" can teach us. TESOL Quarterly 9. 41–51.
Rubin, J. 1987. Chapter 2: Learner strategie: Theoretical assumptions, research history and typology. In A. Wenden, & J. Rubin (eds.), Learner strategies and language learning, 15–30. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Stern, H. H. 1983. Chapter 18: Conditions of learning and the learning process. In H. H. Stern (ed.), Fundamental concepts in language teaching: History and interdisciplinary perspectives on applied linguistics research, 391–415. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Weinstein, C. E. & R. E. Mayer. 1986. The teaching of learning strategies. In M. C. Wittrock (ed.), Handbook of research on teaching, 315–327. New York: Macmillan.
Appendix 2: Texts included in the POST corpus
Cohen, A. D. 1998. Chapter 2: Second language learning and language use strategies: defining terms. In A. D. Cohen (ed.), Strategies in learning and using a second language, 1st edn, 3–23. Harlow: Longman.
Cohen, A. D. 2011. Chapter 2: Coming to terms with second language learning and language use strategies. In A. D. Cohen (ed.), Strategies in learning and using a second language, 2nd edn, 7–62. New York: Taylor & Francis.
Dembo, M. & H. Seli. 2014. Chapter 1: Academic self-regulation. In M. Dembo, & H. Seli (eds.), Motivation and learning strategies for college success: A focus on self-regulated learning, 4th edn, 3–27. New York: Routledge.
Donker, A., H. de Boer, D. Kostons, C. C. Dignath van Ewijk & M. P.van der Werf. 2014. Effectiveness of learning strategy instruction on academic performance: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review 11. 1–26.
Dornyei, Z. & S. Ryan. 2015. Chapter 6: Learning strategies and self-regulation. In Z. Dornyei, & S. Ryan (eds.), The psychology of the language learning revisited, 140–169. New York: Routledge.
Gao, X. 2003. Changes in Chinese students‘ learning strategy use after arrival in the UK: A qualitative study. In D. Palfreyman & R. C. Smith (eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures: Language education perspectives, 41–57. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gregerse, T. & P. MacIntyre. 2014. Chapter 5: Language learning strategies. In T. Gregerse & P. MacIntyre (eds.), Capitalizing on language learners‘ individuality: From premise to practice, 146–173. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Griffiths, C. 2013. Chapter 1: A conceptual perspective. In C. Griffiths, The strategy factor in successful language learning, 1st edn, 1–47. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Griffiths, C. 2018. How individual differences relate to successful strategy use: Self-regulated language learners around the world. In R. L. Oxford & C. M. Amerstorfer (eds.), Language learning strategies and individual learner characteristics: Situating strategy use in diverse contexts, 55–73. London: Bloomsbury.
Griffiths, C. & R. L. Oxford. 2014. The twenty-first century landscape of language learning strategies: Introduction to this special issue. System 43. 1–10.
Gunning, P. & R. L. Oxford. 2014. Children’s learning strategy use and the effects of strategy instruction on successin learning ESL in Canada. System 43. 82–100.
Horwitz, E. K. 2013. Chapter 1: What should I know about language learners and language teaching settings? In E. K. Horwitz (ed.), Becoming a language teacher: A practical guide to second language learning and teaching, 2nd edn, 3–24. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Leaver, B. L., M. E. Ehrman & B. Shekhtman. 2005. Chapter 3: Learning styles and learning strategies. In B. L. Leaver, M. E. Ehrman & B. Shekhtman (eds.), Achieving success in second language acquisition, 65–91. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Macaro, E. 2003. Chapter 5: Research on attitudes and motivation. In E. Macaro (ed.), Teaching and learning a second language: A review of recent research, 88–117. New York: Continuum.
Oxford, R. L. 2011. Chapter 1: Introducing the strategic self-regulation (S2R) model of language learning. In R. L. Oxford (ed.), Teaching and researching language learning strategies, 1st edn, 7–42. Harlow: Longman.
Plonsky, L. 2011. Systematic review article: The effectiveness of second language strategy instruction: A meta-analysis. Language Learning 61. 993–1038.
Purpura, J. 2014. Language learner styles and strategies. In M. Celce-Murcia, D. Brinton & A. Snow (eds.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language, 4th edn, 532–549. Boston, MA: National Geographic Learning/Cengage.
Weinstein, C. E., J. Husman & D. R. Dierking. 2000. Self-regulation interventions with a focus on learning strategies. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich & M. Zeidner (eds.), Handbook of self-regulation, 727–747. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Williams, M., S. Mercer & S. Ryan. 2015. Chapter 7: Agency and self-regulation. In M. Williams, S. Mercer & S. Ryan (eds.), Exploring psychology in language learning and teaching, 121–136. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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© 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
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Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Usage-based contact linguistics: An introduction to the special issue
- Towards a usage-based model of early code-switching: Evidence from three language pairs
- Individual entrenchment vs. community-wide conventionalization of contact features in L2 Basque speakers’ individual styles
- Entrenchment and productivity: The role of input in the code-mixing of a German-English bilingual child
- English-Estonian code-copying: Comparing blogs and vlogs
- A usage-based approach to “language” in language contact
- The (near) absence of English in Flemish dinner table conversations
- The Effects of Technology-Mediated TBLT on Enhancing the Speaking Abilities of University Students in a Collaborative EFL Learning Environment
- Conceptual issues in strategy research: Examining the roles of teachers and students in formal education settings