Chapter 1. Equative constructions in world-wide perspective
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Martin Haspelmath
Abstract
In this paper, we report on a world-wide study of equative constructions (‘A is as big as B’) in a convenience sample of 119 languages. From earlier work, it has been known that European languages often have equative constructions based on adverbial relative pronouns that otherwise express degree or manner (‘how’, ‘as’), but we find that this type is rare outside Europe. We divide the constructions that we found into six primary types, four of which have closely corresponding types of comparative constructions (‘A is bigger than B’). An equative construction often consists of five components: a comparee (‘A’), a degree-marker (‘as’), a parameter (‘is big’), a standard-marker (‘as’), and a standard (‘B’).
Most frequently, the parameter is the main predicate and the equative sense is expressed by a special standard-marker. But many languages also have a degree-marker, so that we get a construction of the English and French type. Another possibility is for the equality sense to be expressed by a transitive ‘equal’ (or ‘reach’) verb, which may be the main predicate or a secondary predicate. And finally, since the equative construction is semantically symmetrical, it is also possible to “unify” the parameter and the standard in the subject position (‘A and B are equally tall’, or ‘A and B are equal in height’). But no language has only a degree-marker, leaving the standard unmarked. Finally, we note some word order correlations.
Abstract
In this paper, we report on a world-wide study of equative constructions (‘A is as big as B’) in a convenience sample of 119 languages. From earlier work, it has been known that European languages often have equative constructions based on adverbial relative pronouns that otherwise express degree or manner (‘how’, ‘as’), but we find that this type is rare outside Europe. We divide the constructions that we found into six primary types, four of which have closely corresponding types of comparative constructions (‘A is bigger than B’). An equative construction often consists of five components: a comparee (‘A’), a degree-marker (‘as’), a parameter (‘is big’), a standard-marker (‘as’), and a standard (‘B’).
Most frequently, the parameter is the main predicate and the equative sense is expressed by a special standard-marker. But many languages also have a degree-marker, so that we get a construction of the English and French type. Another possibility is for the equality sense to be expressed by a transitive ‘equal’ (or ‘reach’) verb, which may be the main predicate or a secondary predicate. And finally, since the equative construction is semantically symmetrical, it is also possible to “unify” the parameter and the standard in the subject position (‘A and B are equally tall’, or ‘A and B are equal in height’). But no language has only a degree-marker, leaving the standard unmarked. Finally, we note some word order correlations.
Chapters in this book
- Prelim pages i
- Table of contents v
- Introduction 1
-
Part I. Typology and grammaticalisation
- Chapter 1. Equative constructions in world-wide perspective 9
- Chapter 2. Toward a cognitive typology of like -expressions 33
- Chapter 3. Similarity, suitability, and non-epistemic modalities (volitionality, ability, and obligation) 79
- Chapter 4. Similative morphemes as purpose clause markers in Ethiopia and beyond 91
- Chapter 5. The deictic identification of similarity 143
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Part II. Case studies from around the world
- Chapter 6. Comparison, similarity and simulation in Zaar, a Chadic language of Nigeria 167
- Chapter 7. Similative, equative, and comparative constructions in Beja (North-Cushitic) 189
- Chapter 8. Expressing comparison in Gbaya, a Ubangian language of the Central African Republic 213
- Chapter 9. Expressing similarity in Yulu and other Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi languages (Central Africa) 239
- Chapter 10. Similarity, equality and the like in North Saami 259
- Chapter 11. Comparative, similative, and equative constructions in Mon 291
- Chapter 12. Multifunctionality and polysemy of the similative marker = kán in Pesh 321
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Part III. Similative constructions and language contact
- Chapter 13. Similative morphemes and their grammaticalisations in Yemsa 341
- Chapter 14. The morpheme ‑ (ä)ŋä in Xamtanga 359
- Chapter 15. Similarity and related functions in Libido 387
- Language index 419
- Name Index 423
- Subject index 429
Chapters in this book
- Prelim pages i
- Table of contents v
- Introduction 1
-
Part I. Typology and grammaticalisation
- Chapter 1. Equative constructions in world-wide perspective 9
- Chapter 2. Toward a cognitive typology of like -expressions 33
- Chapter 3. Similarity, suitability, and non-epistemic modalities (volitionality, ability, and obligation) 79
- Chapter 4. Similative morphemes as purpose clause markers in Ethiopia and beyond 91
- Chapter 5. The deictic identification of similarity 143
-
Part II. Case studies from around the world
- Chapter 6. Comparison, similarity and simulation in Zaar, a Chadic language of Nigeria 167
- Chapter 7. Similative, equative, and comparative constructions in Beja (North-Cushitic) 189
- Chapter 8. Expressing comparison in Gbaya, a Ubangian language of the Central African Republic 213
- Chapter 9. Expressing similarity in Yulu and other Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi languages (Central Africa) 239
- Chapter 10. Similarity, equality and the like in North Saami 259
- Chapter 11. Comparative, similative, and equative constructions in Mon 291
- Chapter 12. Multifunctionality and polysemy of the similative marker = kán in Pesh 321
-
Part III. Similative constructions and language contact
- Chapter 13. Similative morphemes and their grammaticalisations in Yemsa 341
- Chapter 14. The morpheme ‑ (ä)ŋä in Xamtanga 359
- Chapter 15. Similarity and related functions in Libido 387
- Language index 419
- Name Index 423
- Subject index 429
