Volume 100, Issue 2

The empirical data for an analysis of normativity in the origin of religion can be found on the one hand (since the late Middle Paleolithic) in the burials and their symbolism and on the other hand (in a more pronounced form since the Upper Paleolithic) in the religious pictorial stories of cave painting and mobile art. In principle, three forms of normativity can be distinguished. First, there are commandments and prohibitions concerning representation itself: who may be buried and who may not, what is to be depicted and what is not. Secondly, there is a rule of language of representative contents: the burials and their grave goods follow precise rules of staging (grave form, posture and orientation, symbolic language of the grave goods). The same applies to cave painting and mobile art, whose typification reveals a grammar of rules. Finally, the symbolic forms of representation can also be considered as laws for the real individual and social behaviour of people. Thus the pictorial stories of cave paintings and mobile art can be understood as a policy that regulates the moral principles of hunting ethics, cult ethics, sexual ethics and social ethics. Burials also have a normative influence on reality by defining the anthropological image of mankind. Especially on the basis of the stag symbolism this paper will attempt to establish a classification of the different areas and different forms of late Middle and Upper Paleolithic religious normativities in order to explore their structural grammatology – the rule behind the sets of rules – of this normativity. Since this is a constitution of the genealogy of normativity it might present new perceptions for the Conditio humana .

As an intensely debated period, the transition from the LBK to post-LBK societies remains in the centre of attention of researchers dealing with the Early Neolithic in Central Europe. The partly drastic change of the settlement systems, regarding both the patterns and organisation, is indeed an interesting subject and raises questions about the social and economic processes and changes that may have accompanied this development. With this contribution, we present new results from extensive survey activities and excavations of Lengyel sites in the Žitava Valley, Southwestern Slovakia. Most notably, the excavation at the previously unknown circular enclosure of Podhájska, built around 4800 calBCE, yielded new data on various aspects of life in Lengyel contexts. Supplemented by geophysical prospections of other rondel and settlement sites, we now begin to understand the transition process from the Early Neolithic to later periods in this regional context. Varying settlement patterns within this small regional context, as well as new forms to express and maintain communality for the dispersed hamlets during the Lengyel period are remarkable signs for societal reorganisation and an adaption to altered needs of the communities involved.

The eastern part of the Subcarpathian loess region (the Rzeszów Foothills and the Lower San Valley) may now be referred to as the southeasternmost zone of the occurrence of the long barrow cemeteries of the Funnel Beaker culture. In recent times, new intriguing mounds have been discovered in Pawłosiów forest through the utilisation of LiDAR data sources. In order to investigate whether these structures are long barrows built by “beakers” communities, we have carried out preliminary geophysic research, geological drillings, and lithological analysis. As a result, we confirmed the anthropogenic origin of both structures. The main feature registered during the fieldwork was the lithological and stratigraphical difference between the mounds and their direct geological context. Moreover, a presence of an archaeological feature was identified within the frontal part of one of the mounds. These facts, together with key information regarding the location of both earthen structures in the field and their spatial relationship to the nearby FBC settlement at site 52 in Pawłosiów, suggest that they may be relics of the FBC long barrows. In this study, we also discussed these mounds in the context of their spatial-chronological position in the settlement network(s). It is plausible that the inhabitants of Pawłosiów 52 settlement were responsible for the construction of both long barrows in the period ca. 3650–3400 BC. Additionally, we do not exclude the possible alternative (non-funeral) functions and meanings of the cemetery.

The iconographic depictions of combat scenes in the art of the Late Bronze Age Aegean constitute the most fascinating motives of their era. These representations of fighting astonish us by their diversity. They have been immortalised on heterogeneous kinds of material, throughout the Late Bronze Age. The aim of this paper is to present and examine the issues of iconography of these performances. To do so, I use a typological method based on thematic, chronological, material and contextual criteria. Questions, such as whether these representations refer to mythical-fictional or historical-real events, will be addressed. In addition, questions arises as to what extent these combat scenes were a common topic of the Aegean Bronze Age art and during which chronological periods they occurred. Questions about the importance of such motifs in the society of that period, as well as whether they were products of either Minoan or Mycenaean workshops and if it is possible to recognize different artistic tendencies, are also examined. The analysis of the data shows that it is possible, at least for the early phase of the Late Bronze Age, to distinguish between artistic styles. It also shows that every combat scene of the Late Bronze Age Aegean could have a manifold significance for the society of that era, above all because the symbolic meaning of the struggle was integrated into the practical occurrence of war.

In Mycenaean palaces a wide range of consumption activities took place, from the most exclusive to mass-consumption. Here we apply organic residue analysis to a typologically wide ceramic assemblage from the Mycenaean palace of Ayios Vasileios (early fourteenth to mid thirteenth century BC), and the succeeding settlement of the early twelfth century BC, with the aim of investigating the functions of common shapes and to observe patterns of chronological and spatial differentiation related to the palatial and post-palatial phases, the first study of its kind for a Mycenaean palace.

During a survey in Peceneaga, Tulcea county in Dobruja, several settlements and mounds (necropolises) from the 4 th century were discovered. Topographic and geophysical surveys of the “Breazu tumulus” and its surroundings have revealed a partially destroyed tumular necropolis, where the barrow with the statue had a stone ring. The presence of a burial chamber below the embankment could not be proven; another burial structure was probably present. On the largest tumulus lay a Scythian stone statue from the 4 th century BC. The bearded left-handed warrior was represented with a belt, a gorythos and protective armor on his right thigh. In this time the North Pontic Scythians under Ataias, migrating westward, became increasingly sedentary. A Scythian center of power may have emerged there.

In 2009, during research of a cemetery of the Wielbark culture in Czarnówko (Lębork District, Pomerania), an inhumation grave was discovered, which contained the remains of a wooden bowl with copper alloy fittings. Inside it, several hazelnuts were preserved. This vessel, in the light of the analysis carried out, was made of alder wood using a turning technique. Discoveries of this type are not only rare in the area of the Wielbark culture, but also in the rest of Central European Barbaricum. This article presents the results of the archaeobotanical research and demonstrates the bowl in the broader context of Roman Period discoveries.

Zusammenfassung Schildfibeln bilden mit ihren schmückenden Zierscheiben eine der auffälligsten Fibelformen der jüngeren Römischen Kaiserzeit. Sie datieren maßgeblich in die Stufen C2 bis C3. Der größte Fundniederschlag ist in Südskandinavien und dem nordöstlichen Barbaricum zu verzeichnen. Die gängigsten, bis heute gebräuchlichen Ansprachen der einzelnen Ausformungen gehen auf W. Matthes und M. B. Mackeprang zurück. Durch eine gestiegene Fundzahl mit vergrößerter Formenvielfalt geraten diese Einteilungen allerdings seit geraumer Zeit an ihre Grenzen. Auf Grundlage von insgesamt 178 neu aufgenommenen Schildfibeln wurde daher eine neue Klassifikation für Fibeln mit Zierplatten erstellt. Die primären Gliederungskriterien sind Anzahl, Lage und Form der Schilde. Da sich Überschneidungen mit anderen kaiserzeitlichen Fibelformen mit Zierplatten ergaben, wurden solche Stücke in die Auswertung mit einbezogen, um Unterschiede aber auch Gemeinsamkeiten zu besprechen. Durch die neue Strukturierung ist eine umfangreichere und detailliertere Ansprache der Schildfibeln möglich (Teil 1), wodurch weiterreichenden Fragestellungen nachgegangen werden kann (Teil 2). So ergibt sich erstmalig die Möglichkeit für genaue regionale und überregionale Vergleiche. In der neuen Gesamtkartierung der Typen werden fünf regionale Gruppierungen der Schildfibeln ersichtlich. Diese als Verbreitungszonen definierten Regionen weisen eigene Merkmale auf, die einen unterschiedlichen Gebrauch der Schildfibeln widerspiegeln. Neben der Analyse der einzelnen Typen wurden u. a. auch Aspekte der Genese der Schildfibeln, ihrer geschlechtsspezifischen Verwendung und Tragweise, Material und Verzierungen, sowie ihre Einbettung in die regionalen Kontaktnetze untersucht. Die Schildfibeln bilden eine äußerst große Formgruppe. Durch die daraus resultierende umfangreiche Vorlage des Fundstoffes wurde eine Unterteilung der Arbeit in zwei Teile für die Publikation nötig. Im hier folgenden Teil 1 werden die Forschungsgeschichte, die Klassifikation und das Fundspektrums dargelegt. Der 2. Teil erscheint im nachfolgenden Band. Er umfasst die Analyse und den Katalog.

The excavation of Site 33 in Leźno, Kartuzy County, uncovered an extraordinary Wielbark culture cemetery, dated back to the C2–C3 phases of the Roman Period (ca. 260/270–360/370 AD). The most notable finding was grave No. 179, which stood out not only due to its impressive dimensions but also due to the quality and quantity of objects in the grave, including two highly ornamented and elaborate fibulae and a necklace made of amber and glass beads. As the fragments of textiles appeared to be well preserved within the fibulae, they were submitted for specialized analysis before any conservation measures were implemented. These analyses allowed for an extended technological and qualitative diagnosis with the use of optical and digital microscopy as well as SEM scanning microscopy. It was determined that the garment of the deceased contained two kinds of woollen fabrics, one being woven in a 2/2 twill and the other in tabby weave. Also, one of the fabrics retained a side edge made on a tablet loom. According to the findings, it can be inferred that the funerary attire consisted of two layers of clothing: a fine shirt/tunic on the inside and the outer layer in the form of a dress or peplos. The whole outfit was adorned with the pieces of jewellery: three fibulae, a necklace, and a pin. As there were no skeletal remains other than the teeth in the grave, the osteological analysis could not have determined the gender of the deceased. However, in the cultural context of the grave goods, it can be argued that the richness of the clothing as well as the sophisticated jewellery indicate that the deceased was presumably an upper-class woman. In conclusion, grave No. 179, along with others from the Leźno cemetery, contributes to the understanding of burial practices, material artefacts, and social structure of the Gothic community, while emphasizing the role of the Wielbark culture in the cultural interactions between Barbaricum and the Roman Empire.

Zusammenfassung Die Studie evaluiert und interpretiert einen Satz von Pferdegeschirrbeschlägen von Milonice, Bez. Blansko (Mähren, Tschechische Republik) aus dem Bereich des europäischen Barbaricums. Die Beschläge stammen von mindestens zwei Garnituren und datieren in das späte 2. bis frühe 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. Ihre Ausprägung kommt Funden von Illerup Ådal und Kazanskaya Stanica am nächsten. Sie stellen die ersten Vertreter dieser Gruppe in der mittleren Donauregion dar. Gebrauchsspurenuntersuchungen bestätigten eine Verwendung der Objekte und ihre Beschädigung. Die metallkundliche Analyse ergab, dass die untersuchten Artefakte (1 bis 6) aus Zinn, Messing und Silber hergestellt wurden. Mit Blick auf ihre Fundlage in der Landschaft und ihr Verhältnis zu mit anderen Funden in der Nähe ist eine Interpretation der Metallgegenstände als Deponieriung aus rituellen Gründen am wahrscheinlichsten.

The authors concluded that the spoon-ended fittings of the ends of the belt may have served as dispensers of stimulants for Germanic warriors to fight Germanic warriors into battle. They collated 241 such objects, dividing them typologically. It turned out that all of them were found together with elements of war equipment. They attempted to identify achievable plant raw materials affecting the stimulating the body and determined their effectiveness. They also indicated the ranges of their availability. In conclusion, they concluded that the use of agitation stimulants may have been far greater than had been assumed. They referred to finds from military sacrificial sites votive sites in southern Scandinavia (mainly Illerup), which show that the amount of dispensing utensils to aid body efficiency may even attest to their prevalence. The authors also believe that they have discovered an unknown branch of the economy operating for the war conflicts waged during the Roman period.

The article is the second publication summarizing the project aimed at searching for clues regarding the social position and functions of the dead equipped with spurs buried in the cemeteries of the Central European Barbaricum. The main assumption of the project was to analyse the location of graves with spurs in selected cemeteries in search of any regularities regarding the location of horsemen graves and their relations with other graves in the necropolis. The following analysis covered eight cemeteries from the Central European area of Barbaricum , four cemeteries of the Przeworsk culture – Chorula, Lachmirowice, Chmielów Piaskowy, and Opatów – two cemeteries of the Wielbark culture – Kowalewko and Weklice – one cemetery of the Sudovian culture – Szwajcaria – and a necropolis belonging to the Elbe cultural circle in Hamfelde. The obtained results clearly indicate that the special character of spurs emphasized in the literature is confirmed by spatial relations. The regularities observed in the cemeteries of communities that buried their dead with weapons concerned almost exclusively the graves of mounted warriors. It is significant that these regularities did not apply to graves with spurs, in which no weapons were found and therefore cannot be considered warrior burials. Such objects most often did not fit into the observed spatial structures and were located in the cemetery space without any noticeable regularities. The regularities regarding the choice of the burial place of deceased mounted warriors seem to be one of the aspects of distinguishing their position and importance by the mourners. The universality of these rules should be considered as evidence of the stabilized position of the rider in the analysed prehistoric societies, which also indicates their homogeneity in this respect. This becomes a valuable clue, especially in the context of the analysis and interpretation of materials from Wielbark culture cemeteries where, so far, there have been no grounds for drawing conclusions about the presence of a warrior strata.

Zusammenfassung Eine in den 1980er Jahren von H. Ziegert durchgeführte Ausgrabung in Assel, Ldkr. Stade, förderte sieben Gräber zu Tage, die in diesem Artikel umfassend vorgelegt werden. Es handelt sich um insgesamt acht Körperbestattungen, die zum Teil mit bislang gänzlich unbekannten, herausragenden Beigaben versehen waren und hierüber an den Beginn des 5. Jahrhunderts datiert werden können. Besonders sticht Grab 1 hervor – der hier bestatteten Frau wurde ein üppiger Halsschmuck, bestehend aus über 200 einzelnen Glas- und Bernsteinperlen in verschiedensten Farben und Formen sowie 21 in ihrer Größe und Form außergewöhnlichen Bernsteinanhängern, mit ins Grab gegeben. Weiterhin finden sich mit einer komponierten Schalenfibel und einer gleicharmigen Fibel Objekte aus kerbschnittverziertem und vergoldetem Silberpressblech sowie unter anderem ein gläserner Nuppenbecher. In dieser Kombination entsteht ein nicht alltägliches Ensemble, welches nur wenige Parallelen kennt und zum einen den besonderen Status verdeutlicht, den die hier bestattete Frau innegehabt haben muss und zu einer Ansprache als Eliten- bzw. Prunkgrab führt, zum anderen aber auch überregionale Verbindungen aufzeigt und damit einen neuen Aspekt in Bezug auf die Frage nach der Bedeutung sowie der Einbindung des Platzes im kaiser- und völkerwanderungszeitlichen Handels- und Kommunikationssystem liefert.