Interaction of Linguistic and Literary Aspects in the Context of the Cultural Diversity of the Turkic Peoples of Central Asia

3.1 Historical and Linguistic Dynamics of the Turkic Peoples in Central Asia

The Turkic peoples of Central Asia have a long and complex history stretching back many centuries and including numerous migrations, wars, and cultural exchanges. The main territory inhabited by the Turkic peoples includes Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, partly Tajikistan, and adjacent areas of China, Russia, and Mongolia. The history of the Turkic peoples begins in ancient times, when they still led a nomadic lifestyle in the vast Eurasian steppe. The first mention of the Turkic tribes belongs to the Chinese chronicles, which date back to the second-century BCE. Even then, the Turks were known as warriors and talented artisans engaged in metallurgy and cattle breeding. One of the key stages in the history of the Turkic peoples was the formation of the Turkic Khaganate in the fourth-century CE (Konstantinov et al., 2018). The Turkic Khaganate, created under the leadership of Kagan Bumyn, united numerous Turkic tribes and spread its influence over vast territories, from Mongolia to the Black Sea (Tulenbergenova et al., 2024). It was a time of economic and cultural prosperity when the Turks established trade and diplomatic ties with China, Byzantium, and Persia. At that time, Turkic-speaking peoples such as the Kyrgyz, Uighurs, and Kipchaks who inhabited Central Asia developed original phonographic graphics that fully satisfied the phonetic systems of the Kyrgyz, Uighur, and Kipchak languages. Now, it is called the “ancient Turkic Runic script,” sometimes the “Orkhon-Yenisei script.”

After the collapse of the Turkic Khaganate in the eighth century, the Turkic peoples continued to play a significant role in the history of Central Asia. One of the most outstanding events of this period was the founding of the Karakhanid state in the tenth century. The Karakhanids were the first Turkic rulers to convert to Islam, which had a huge impact on the further development of Turkic culture and language. Islamisation contributed to the development of literature, science, and art, and strengthened ties with the Islamic world. For example, the dictionary “Diwan Lughat at-Turk” by Kashkari and didactic treatise “Kutadgu bilig” by Balasagyna were written in the Karakhanid era. It should also be noted that the influence of the Persian and Arabic languages on the vocabulary of the Turkic languages in this era was distinctive. In the thirteenth century, the Turkic peoples found themselves under the rule of the Mongol Empire, created by Genghis Khan (Robinson, 2019). The Mongol conquest led to significant changes in the political and social structure of Central Asia, but Turkic traditions and culture were able to be preserved and integrated into the new empire. After the collapse of the Mongol Empire, new Turkic states arose on its territory, such as the Chagatai Ulus and the Golden Horde. One of the most famous Turkic states was the Timurid Sultanate, founded in the fourteenth century by Timur (Tamerlane). The Timurid Empire covered vast territories, including modern-day Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, and a significant part of Central Asia. The Timurids contributed to the development of architecture, literature, and art, leaving behind a rich cultural heritage.

In the sixteenth–seventeenth centuries, such Turkic khanates as the Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand khanates arose on the territory of Central Asia (Embassy of the Republic of Uzbekistan in Ukraine, 2019). These states became centres of culture and science, and important trade hubs on the Great Silk Road. At that time, the Turkic peoples achieved significant success in the fields of astronomy, medicine, and literature. In the nineteenth century, Central Asia came under the rule of the Russian Empire. Russian colonisation has led to significant changes in the political, social, and economic life of the region. The Turkic peoples faced the processes of Russification and modernisation, which had a profound impact on their culture and language. During the Soviet period, the Turkic republics gained some autonomy, but were also subject to a harsh policy of assimilation and repression. Nowadays, the Turkic peoples of Central Asia continue to preserve and develop their linguistic and cultural traditions (Yashnyk & Turitsyna, 2023). In the conditions of independence, the Turkic states strive to revive national identity, strengthen cultural ties, and develop economic cooperation. Central Asia remains a region with a rich historical and cultural heritage, which continues to influence modern processes in politics, economics, and culture (Novozhenov, 2023). The development and dissemination of Turkic languages in Central Asia is a key aspect of the cultural and linguistic heritage of the region (Darginavičienė, 2023). The analysis showed that these languages have gone through a difficult path of evolution, adaptation, and mutual influence under the influence of various historical, cultural, and political factors.

Turkic languages such as Kazakh, Uzbek, Turkmen, and Kyrgyz have common roots, but developed in different cultural and geographical conditions, which led to significant differences in their phonetics, morphology, and syntax. During the research, it was found that contacts with Persian, Arabic, and Russian played an important role in the development of these languages. These contacts led to a significant borrowing of vocabulary and grammatical structures, which contributed to the enrichment and complication of the linguistic system of the Turkic languages. In the first lines, the author uses other people’s words twice (Arabic (мaгpифaт) and Persian (xyдaйым), with Kyrgyz accents “xyдaй-ы-м.” After the author’s correction, three foreign words are obtained: “мaгpифaт,” “кyнaxин,” and “xyдaйым.” Thus, his language differed considerably from the Kyrgyz improvisatory akyns. On this, it can be concluded that the integration of Arabic, Persian, Tatar, and Russian languages of the Kyrgyz creative intelligentsia occurred through education, which was obtained in one of these languages. Thus, all the writing akyns of the Kyrgyz people in the nineteenth century differed from improvisers (тмө), which once again proves that who studied in which language and tried to borrow words from this language. Thus, the influence of neighbouring languages and cultures on the Turkic languages of Central Asia is multifaceted and profound. These interactions contributed to the development of the Turkic languages, enriching their vocabulary, grammar, and literary traditions. The study of these influences helps to better understand the dynamics of cultural exchanges and linguistic changes that have taken place in the region over the centuries.

The Turkic languages of Central Asia, such as Kazakh, Uzbek, Turkmen, and Kyrgyz, have many common features, which is due to their origin from a common proto-language. However, despite the similarities, these languages also show significant differences in phonetics, morphology, and syntax, which arose as a result of long historical and cultural development. One of the common features of the Turkic languages is vocal harmony or synharmonism. Vocal harmony consists of the fact that the vowels in a word usually agree on the basis of the front or back row. For example, in the Kazakh language, the word “кітaп” (book) consists of the vowels of the front row [i] and [ä], whereas in the word “қaлa” (city) the vowels of the back row [a] and [a] are used. This feature is also evident in the Kyrgyz language: the word “китeп” (book) has vowels in the front row, and “шaap” (city) has vowels in the back. However, there are differences. In Uzbek, unlike Kazakh and Kyrgyz, vocal harmony is less pronounced. For example, in the Uzbek word “kitob” (book) and “shahar” (city), there is no strict vowel alignment. The Turkmen language also demonstrates some degree of vocal harmony, but not as strictly as Kazakh or Kyrgyz.

The morphological features of the Turkic languages include agglutination, in which grammatical meanings are expressed by attaching affixes to the root of a word. This feature is typical for all Turkic languages. For example, in the Kazakh language, the word “бaлaлapғa” (to children) consists of the root “бaлa” (child) and the affixes of the plural “-лap” and the dative case “-ғa.” In the Kyrgyz language, the similar word “бaлдapгa” is formed according to a similar principle. The differences are manifested in the use of specific affixes and their variations. In Uzbek, the affix “-lar” or “-lar” is used to form the plural, as in the word “bolalar” (children), and in the Turkmen language a similar affix is “-lar,” as in “çagalar” (children). In Kazakh, case affixes often vary depending on vocal harmony, for example, “-ғa” for back vowels and “-гe” for front vowels, while in Uzbek there is no such variability. Second, phonetic phenomena such as synharmonism, assimilation, and dissimilation are unevenly developed in the Turkic languages. For example, in the Kyrgyz language, in comparison with other Turkic languages, the phenomena of harmonisation, assimilation, and dissimilation are active; therefore, there are many variants of affixes of all grammatical categories in the Kyrgyz language. Let us compare: in Kyrgyz: тaлaa-lar (fields); ит-ter (dogs); төө-lör (camels); in Uzbek: дaлa-lar, тya-lar, ит-lar. Evidently, there are many variants of the plural affix in the Kyrgyz language, and the affix that continues with the same words in the Uzbek language is always “-lar,” because there is no synharmonism in the Uzbek language (Table 1).

In the area of syntax, Turkic languages show similarities in the basic SOV (subject-object-verb) word order. For example, in the Kazakh language, the sentence “Meн кітaп oқимын” (I am reading a book) follows this order. In the Kyrgyz language, the similar sentence “Meн китeп oкyймyн” also has the SOV order. In Uzbek, the sentence “Men kitob o’qiyman” corresponds to the same structure. Kyrgyz, Kazakh, and Uzbek languages belong to the agglutinative language group, so the structure of simple sentences is the same. In addition, Persian, Arabic, and Russian were not syntactically influenced by these languages. Differences in syntax may include the word order in complex sentences and the use of particles. In the Kazakh language, particles are often used to express shades of meaning and emotions, such as “ғoй” and “eкeн.” In Uzbek, the particles “ku” and “da” perform similar functions, but their use and position in a sentence may differ. In the Turkmen language, the word order can vary depending on the accent and context, which gives a certain flexibility to the sentence. In addition, the study showed that modern media and globalisation have an impact on syntactic structures, especially in the context of borrowed constructions and new forms of communication. For example, in the Kyrgyz language, the influence of the Russian language is observed in the structure of complex sentences and the use of some syntactic models. Thus, the Turkic languages of Central Asia, despite their common roots, show significant diversity in phonetics, morphology, and syntax. These differences are the result of long-term historical development, cultural contacts and the influence of different languages and traditions. The study of these aspects allows for a deeper understanding of the evolution and current state of the Turkic languages, and their role in preserving the cultural heritage of the region. The Turkic languages of Central Asia have been significantly influenced by neighbouring languages and cultures for centuries, which has affected their vocabulary, grammar, literary traditions, and cultural practices. This influence was manifested through trade routes, migrations, political conquests, and cultural exchanges.

3.2 Influence of Neighbouring Languages and Cultures

One of the most significant influences on the Turkic languages was the Persian and Arabic influences, especially after the adoption of Islam. Arabic, being the language of the Quran and religious texts, had a profound impact on the vocabulary and grammar of the Turkic languages. For example, there are many borrowed Arabic words in the Kazakh language, such as “кітaп” (book) and “мeктeп” (school), which come from the Arabic “kitāb” and “madrasa.” Similar borrowings are also present in the Uzbek language: “kitob” (book) and “maktab” (school). The Persian language has also had a significant impact on the Turkic languages, especially in the field of poetry and literary genres. For example, the great Uzbek poet Alisher Navoi wrote in Persian and Chagatai languages, and his work was saturated with Persian literary forms and images. Borrowed Persian words and expressions are often found in his works, which indicates a deep cultural and linguistic interaction. The influence of other linguistic groups has not gone unnoticed in the development of the languages of the Turkic peoples. The result of this was the various writing systems that the Turkic peoples used, both in the past centuries and in modern days (Table 2).

The influence of the Russian language on the Turkic languages of Central Asia became especially noticeable in the 19th and 20th centuries, during the period of colonisation and Soviet rule. Russian has become the language of administration, education, and science, which has led to a wide spread of Russian vocabulary and grammatical structures. For example, in the Kazakh language, borrowed words from Russian, such as “пapoвoз” (steam locomotive) and “caмoлeт” (airplane), have entered everyday use. There is also a significant number of Russian loanwords in the Kyrgyz language: “тeлeфoн” (phone), “мaшинa” (car), and “кoмпьютep” (computer). According to the “Kyrgyz-Russian dictionary” by Yudakhin (1985), 12% of the Kyrgyz vocabulary consists of words borrowed from the Russian language. The Soviet language policy included the standardisation and unification of the Turkic languages, which led to some changes in spelling and grammar. For example, the introduction of the Cyrillic alphabet for writing in Turkic languages contributed to the integration of Russian spelling norms. It also led to the emergence of bilingual texts and the expansion of cultural exchanges between Turkic and Russian writers and scholars.

The influence of the Chinese language and culture on Turkic peoples such as Uighurs, Kyrgyz, and Kazakhs living in Xinjiang is also significant. The Chinese language influences the vocabulary and some aspects of the grammar of the Uighur language. For example, loanwords such as “公司” (company) and “电话” (phone) entered the Uighur language as a result of close economic and cultural ties with China.

3.3 Literary Heritage and Linguistic Analysis

Folklore and oral traditions play an important role in the preservation and transmission of the cultural heritage of the Turkic peoples. Legends, fairy tales, epics, and songs contain unique linguistic features that are passed down from generation to generation. In the course of the research, folklore texts collected in various regions of Central Asia were analysed, which helped to identify the characteristic lexical and syntactic features of the Turkic languages. For example, the epic “Manas,” which is one of the greatest works of Kyrgyz folklore, is a rich source of linguistic data and cultural codes reflecting the worldview and values of the Kyrgyz people (Saadanbekov, 2020). For example, the words “кopcaк” (corsac), “бapcyк” (badger), and “кopoлeк” (kinglet) used in Russian were borrowed from Kyrgyz into Russian. This is evident from the text of the epic “Manas,” “Изи мeнeн Кopcaктын (following in Corsac’s footsteps),” and “Caлгын бapcyк этинeн (Roast some badger meat).”

The influence of Persian, Arabic, and Russian on the Kyrgyz language and literature is clearly visible in the songs of Kyrgyz folk poets. In the poem “Кaфиpди Кyдaй зop кылып, Mycyлмaнды кop кылып, -,” a representative of the Kyrgyz poets of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Moldo Niyaz, there are two Arabic (кaфиp, мycyлмaн) and two Persian (зop, Кyдaй) words. Literature and culture play an important role in the transmission and preservation of borrowed elements. The influence of neighbouring cultures can be traced to the literary genres, themes, and styles of Turkic works. For example, the poetry of Alisher Navoi (Orynkhanova et al., 2020) was inspired by Persian literature, and the works of Abai Kunanbayev often contain elements of the Russian literary tradition (Elnazarov, 2023). The influence of Arabic and Persian literature is also evident in the use of traditional poetic forms such as ghazals and rubai, which have been adapted to the Turkic languages and have become an integral part of their literary heritage. The analysis of the literary texts of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia from the standpoint of linguistic features allows for a deeper understanding of how linguistic structures and cultural contexts interact and influence each other. One of the most striking examples of such texts is the works of Makhtumkuli, the great Turkmen poet of the eighteenth century. His work reflects the unique linguistic, literary, and cultural features characteristic of the Turkmen people (Morozova, 2018).

Makhtumkuli’s works feature the use of phonetic features characteristic of the Turkmen language, such as vowel harmony and consonant combinations. In his poems, the harmony of the vowels contributes to the melody and rhythm of the text. For example, in the poem “Mилләт” (Nation), the alternation of vowels creates a harmonious sound, emphasising the patriotic mood. Makhtumkuli makes extensive use of agglutination, characteristic of the Turkic languages, where grammatical meanings are expressed by attaching affixes to the root of a word. his poems contain numerous examples of the use of affixes, which give words new meanings and shades. For example, in the poem “Baтaн” (Homeland), the poet uses affixes to express belonging and possessiveness, which emphasises the deep connection of the lyrical hero with the homeland. The syntax of Makhtumkuli’s works also reflects the peculiarities of the Turkmen language. The basic word order in his poems corresponds to SOV (subject–complement–predicate), which is typical for Turkic languages. For example, in the line “Meн юpтyмгa бapғaйин” (I will go to my homeland), the subject “мeн” (I) stands at the beginning of the sentence, the addition “юpтyмгa” (to my homeland) in the middle, and the predicate “бapғaйин” (I will go) at the end. The vocabulary of Makhtumkuli’s works is rich in borrowings from Persian and Arabic, which reflects the cultural and historical ties of the Turkmen people with the Islamic world. His poems often contain words borrowed from these languages, such as “ишк” (love), “дeвлeт” (state), and “aдaл” (honest). These borrowings give his writings a special depth and variety.

Makhtumkuli’s literary works are characterised by the use of traditional poetic forms such as ghazals and rubai, which came to Turkic literature from Persian and Arabic poetry. Makhtumkuli ghazals are often devoted to the theme of love and spiritual quest, and rubai touch on philosophical and moral issues. For example, in the ghazal “Ғызлapин ғызиi” (Girl of Girls), the poet describes the beauty and virtues of his beloved, using a rich poetic language and metaphors. Makhtumkuli’s texts also reflect the cultural and social realities of eighteenth-century Turkmen society. Themes of patriotism, love of the motherland, religiosity, and moral values are often found in his works. In the poem “Aтa-бaбa” (Ancestors), he celebrates the exploits and wisdom of the ancestors, emphasising the importance of preserving cultural heritage and traditions. One example is the poem “Дүния” (The World), where the poet reflects on the transitory nature of earthly life and eternal values. In this poem, he uses a variety of metaphors and symbols to convey his philosophical ideas. For example, he compares life to a river that inevitably flows to its end, emphasising the inevitability of death and the importance of spiritual growth. Another example is the poem “Гapa гөз” (Black eyes), where Makhtumkuli sings about the beauty of his beloved. Here, he uses images of nature, such as flowers and stars, to emphasise its attractiveness and spiritual purity. The influence of Persian poetry is also noticeable in this poem, especially in the use of symbolism and poetic forms.

Makhtumkuli’s works are not only outstanding literary monuments, but also an important source for studying the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the Turkmen people. They demonstrate how language and literature can interact and enrich each other, creating multi-layered and deep texts reflecting the richness and diversity of Turkic culture. Thus, the analysis of Makhtumkuli’s literary texts from the standpoint of linguistic features helps to better understand how linguistics, literature, and culture interact and mutually enrich each other. His works are a vivid example of how language and literature can serve as a means of preserving and transmitting cultural values and historical memory. The analysis of linguistic, literary, and cultural aspects in the context of the cultural diversity of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia allows for a deeper understanding of their rich historical and cultural heritage. One of the key sources for such an analysis is the work of Mahmoud al-Kashgari “Diwan Lughat at-Turk” (Dictionary of Turkic Dialects), created in the eleventeenth century (Kocaoğlu, 2004). This dictionary is not only a lexicographic work, but also a valuable source for studying the linguistic, literary, and cultural characteristics of the Turkic peoples.

“Diwan Lughat at-Turk” includes many dialects of Turkic languages, demonstrating their diversity and richness. Mahmoud al-Kashgari describes the phonetic, morphological, and syntactic features of various Turkic languages, such as Kyrgyz, Oguz, Karluk, and Kipchak. For example, he notes differences in the pronunciation and use of certain phonemes, such as the sound [ğ], which in some dialects is pronounced as [g], and in others as [ğ] or [w]. This demonstrates the phonetic diversity and adaptation of languages depending on geographical and cultural conditions. Morphological analysis of the dictionary shows that grammatical meanings are expressed using affixes. Al-Kashgari provides numerous examples of words with various affixes, such as “-lar” to form the plural and “-da” to indicate location. These examples illustrate the structural features of the Turkic languages and their tendency to agglutination. The al-Kashgari dictionary also contains many examples of poetic and prose texts that demonstrate the literary traditions of the Turkic peoples. The dictionary contains poems and folklore stories that reflect the richness and diversity of Turkic literature. For example, al-Kashgari includes excerpts from folk epics such as “Китaб-и дeдeм Кopкyт” (The Book of my grandfather Korkut), which illustrate heroic deeds and mythological plots characteristic of Turkic literature. An example of literary analysis is the description of the genre “кoч” (song of sorrow), which al-Kashgari cites in his dictionary. He notes that this genre is widespread among the Turkic peoples and is used to express grief and sadness. Poems in the “кoч” genre are often filled with metaphors and symbols reflecting the emotional state of the author. This highlights the importance of poetic forms in Turkic literature and their role in cultural life.

There are many proverbs on didactic semantics in the dictionary “Diwan Lughat at-Turk” by M. Kashgari. For example, these proverbs “Tajğan jügrügin tilkü sevmes” (A fox does not like a fleet-footed dog), “Iki qoçηar başı bir aşaçta bışmas” (The heads of two sheep are not boiled in the same pot), which the researcher uses as an example of “Diwan Lughat at-Turk,” are still used in modern Kyrgyz, Kazakh, and Uzbek languages. One of the translators of the M. Kashgari dictionary into Kyrgyz, Ph.D., Associate Professor A. Omorov believes that, unlike the three Turkic languages mentioned above, more than 60% of the words are preserved and actively used in the Kyrgyz language (Resolution of the Government…, 2019). The phonetic system, lexical base, and grammatical structure of the modern Kyrgyz language are close to the ancient and medieval Turkic language in comparison with the languages of other peoples living in Central Asia, as can be seen from the work of Moldo Niyaz in various genres. In his lexicographical work, Kashgari also mentions the adoption of Mongolian and Persian lexical units. For example, the words “bajran” (destroy) and “dazram” (holiday) are borrowed from the Persian language, and the word “buddist” (Buddhist) is from the Mongolian language.

The cultural aspects of the al-Kashgari dictionary include a description of the customs, traditions, and rituals of the Turkic peoples. His work includes references to festivals, rituals, and daily practices that illustrate the cultural diversity of the region. For example, al-Kashgari describes the traditions of hospitality that play an important role in Turkic societies. He notes that hospitality is one of the main values, and every guest should be received with respect and honours. In addition, al-Kashgari pays attention to the role of women in Turkic societies. He describes how women participate in various aspects of public life, including family and religious rituals. This highlights the importance of gender aspects in the cultural traditions of the Turkic peoples and their role in preserving cultural heritage. One of the striking examples of the analysis is the word “aт” (horse), which al-Kashgari describes in the context of various dialects. He points out that in one dialect this word may sound like “aт,” and in another as “aтлap.” This difference reflects phonetic and morphological features, as well as the influence of neighbouring languages and dialects. Another example is the word “йигит” (well done), which in different dialects can have different forms and meanings. Al-Kashgari gives examples of the use of this word in poetic texts, which show how literary works help to preserve and convey linguistic features.

The analysis of linguistic, literary, and cultural aspects in the context of the cultural diversity of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia, based on the work of Mahmoud al-Kashgari, shows how languages, literature, and culture are interconnected and influence each other. The al-Kashgari Dictionary is a valuable source for understanding these processes and demonstrates the richness and diversity of the Turkic cultural heritage. His work highlights the importance of preserving and learning languages and cultures, which contributes to strengthening cultural identity and mutual understanding between the peoples of the region.

3.4 Contemporary Trends and Preservation Efforts

Modern trends in the development of Turkic languages are associated with the processes of globalisation and the influence of modern media and the Internet. These processes contribute both to the unification of linguistic norms and to the preservation of local dialects and cultural characteristics. In the conditions of independence, the Turkic states strive to revive and preserve national identity through the support of native languages and cultural traditions. Programmes for the preservation and development of Turkic languages include educational initiatives, the creation of media content in native languages, and the support of literary creativity.

An example of a successful language policy is Kazakhstan, where the state actively supports the development of the Kazakh language through educational programmes and media projects. There is also an active revival of interest in the Uzbek language and literature in Uzbekistan, which contributes to strengthening national identity and cultural heritage. The study also revealed that migration processes have a significant impact on the linguistic picture of the region. Migrations lead to the interpenetration of languages and cultures, which contributes to the development of multilingualism and intercultural communication (Chaika, 2024). As a result of the synthesis of these processes, the Turkic languages continue to evolve and adapt to modern conditions, while preserving their unique features and cultural heritage. The preservation and development of the linguistic identity of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia is a critically important aspect of their cultural heritage (Nusubalieva et al., 2023). In the context of cultural diversity and globalisation, the challenges facing these people require an integrated approach and thoughtful strategies to ensure the sustainability of their languages and cultural traditions.

Historically, the Turkic peoples of Central Asia have gone through many political and cultural transformations, including the influence of Persia, the Arab Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Soviet Union. These influences have led to significant changes in the linguistic practices and cultural identity of the Turkic peoples. During the Soviet period, there was a policy of Russification, which led to a weakening of the position of native languages and an increased role of the Russian language in public and private life. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the independent States of Central Asia began active efforts to revive and preserve their national languages. These efforts include educational reforms, media campaigns, and cultural initiatives aimed at strengthening linguistic identity. One of the key tools for preserving linguistic identity is the education system. In Kazakhstan, for example, a state programme on trilingualism was adopted, which provides for the study of Kazakh, Russian, and English languages (Resolution of the Government…, 2019). In this programme, special attention is paid to the Kazakh language as the state language, which contributes to its popularisation and use in various spheres of life. Uzbekistan has also taken steps to strengthen the role of the Uzbek language in the education system (Normurodova, 2023). More and more schools and universities are switching to teaching in Uzbek, which contributes to its development and strengthening. Turkmenistan has similarly introduced educational programmes aimed at improving the level of proficiency in the Turkmen language among young people (The Education Act., 2014).

Modern media and the Internet play an important role in the preservation and development of linguistic identity. National TV channels, radio stations, and Internet portals in Turkic languages are actively developing in Central Asia. This contributes to the dissemination of information, culture, and language to a wide audience. An example of a successful media project is the Kazakh TV channel “Khabar,” which broadcasts programmes in the Kazakh language, including news, educational programmes, and cultural programmes. In Kyrgyzstan, the “Alatoo 24” TV channel plays a similar role, promoting the Kyrgyz language and culture. Cultural initiatives are also important for preserving linguistic identity. This includes holding festivals, contests, exhibitions, and other events aimed at popularising the Turkic culture and language. For example, the “Nauryz” festival is held annually in Kazakhstan, which includes elements of traditional music, dance, cooking and language practice. Literary contests and festivals are held in Uzbekistan aimed at supporting Uzbek writers and poets, which contributes to the development of the literary language and the support of national identity.

Diasporas play an important role in the preservation and development of linguistic identity (Sakhiyeva et al., 2016). Turkic diasporas in Russia, Turkey, Europe, and other parts of the world actively support their native languages through cultural centres, schools, and media projects. This helps to keep in touch with cultural roots and pass the language on to new generations. Migration also has a significant impact on linguistic identity. Migration processes can contribute to both strengthening and weakening of linguistic identity (Sakhiyeva et al., 2015). In the context of migration, it is important to create conditions for the preservation and study of the native language, which can be achieved through educational programmes and cultural initiatives (Maltsev et al., 2022). The preservation and development of the linguistic identity of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia in the context of cultural diversity requires an integrated approach, including educational reforms, media projects, cultural initiatives, and support for diasporas. These efforts are aimed at strengthening national languages and cultures, which contributes to the preservation of the rich heritage of the Turkic peoples and their sustainable development in a globalising world.

Globalization presents significant challenges for Turkic languages, influencing their usage and evolution. The increasing dominance of global languages, particularly English, affects the preservation and development of these languages, creating pressures to adapt to global communication norms. As a result, Turkic-speaking communities face the difficult task of balancing the modernization of their linguistic practices with the preservation of their cultural identity. The impact of intercultural conflict and nationalization processes on these languages highlights the ongoing struggle to maintain linguistic vitality in a globalised world. These dynamics emphasise the complex relationship between language, culture, and globalisation, as Turkic languages navigate the pressures of modernity while striving to retain their unique characteristics (Suleymanli et al., 2024).

4.1 Literary Heritage and Linguistic Analysis

Folklore and oral traditions play an important role, which preserve and transmit unique linguistic features and cultural codes from generation to generation. The works of poets such as Makhtumkuli serve as a vivid example of the interaction of language and culture, demonstrating the richness and diversity of Turkic literature. Mahmoud al-Kashgari’s dictionary “Diwan Lughat at-Turk” is an important source for studying the linguistic, literary, and cultural characteristics of the Turkic peoples, emphasising the importance of preserving and studying languages and cultures. Migration processes and diaspora activities also have a significant impact on linguistic identity, contributing to the development of multilingualism and intercultural communication. In the context of globalisation, it is important to create conditions for the preservation and study of native languages through educational programmes and cultural initiatives, which helps to preserve cultural heritage and adapt to modern conditions.

The studies by Qarshiyevna (2022) and Sapaeva (2021) represent important aspects in understanding the historical development of the Turkic languages, literary traditions, and cultural characteristics of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia. Qarshiyevna analysed the contribution of Mahmoud al-Kashgari to the systematisation and study of Turkic languages. Al-Kashgari in his “Diwan lugat at-turk” systematised the different dialects of Turkic languages, describing their phonetic, morphological, and syntactic features, which allows a deeper understanding of the evolution of Turkic languages and their interrelationship. F. Sapaeva explored the lessons of life and creativity through the prism of Turkic literature and culture, analysing how literary works influence the formation of the cultural identity of the Turkic peoples. She noted that the works of such authors as Alisher Navoi and Makhtumkuli reflect social values and ideals, influencing the spiritual and moral development of society. Literary texts play a key role in the preservation and transmission of cultural heritage, describing holidays, rituals, and daily life, which contributes to the preservation of cultural memory and traditions (Brait et al., 2023). Both studies show how linguistic and literary aspects interact in the context of the cultural diversity of the Turkic peoples. Qarshiyevna focused on the systematisation and preservation of linguistic heritage through the work of al-Kashgari, which correlates with our research aimed at studying the historical development of the Turkic languages and their phonetic, morphological, and syntactic features. Sapaeva emphasises the role of literature in preserving cultural identity and transmitting traditions. Together, these articles emphasise the importance of an integrated approach to the study of Turkic languages and cultures, which includes linguistic analysis, literary heritage, and cultural practices. This corresponds to the objectives of the study and preservation of the linguistic identity of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia in the context of cultural diversity and globalisation.

In the context of the aspect of literary heritage, the analysis of the works of Alibekova (2022), Gorshenina (2021), and Gaubullayeva (2020) reveals important topics related to ethnolinguistic viability, postcolonial theoretical frameworks, and linguistic and cultural characteristics. Alibekova explored the ethnolinguistic viability of the Khemshin language, emphasising its importance for preserving cultural identity and rich literary heritage. The researcher concluded that despite the impact of dominant languages, the Khemshi language retains its vitality through family and community practices, and through literature that conveys cultural and historical knowledge. Gorshenina, in her research, analysed the theoretical framework of Orientalism, postcolonialism, and decolonisation in the context of Central Asia. She emphasised that the literary heritage of the region must be viewed through the prism of these theories to understand how the colonial past and modern globalisation processes affect the cultural identity and literary traditions of the Turkic peoples. Gaubullayeva explored the etymological characteristics of the Uzbek vocabulary, which has no analogues in other languages, and its linguistic and cultural significance. The researcher concludes that the unique vocabulary reflects the deep cultural and historical aspects of Uzbek identity, preserving the literary heritage and passing cultural knowledge through generations. These studies overlap with this study in that they all emphasise the importance of literature and language in preserving and developing the cultural identity of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia. They show how literature serves as a means of transmitting cultural values and historical knowledge, and how postcolonial and globalisation processes affect literary traditions and linguistic identity.

Studies by Subtelny (1994) and Schluter (2017) emphasise the importance of modern media, technologies, and globalisation processes in the context of preserving and developing linguistic and cultural identity. Subtelny analysed the interaction of Turkic and Tajik cultures in a historical context, demonstrating how these cultures influenced each other and coexisted for centuries. A. Schluter explored the use of hybrid language practices on national Kurdish television in Turkey. Both studies emphasise the importance of media and technology for the preservation and development of linguistic and cultural identity in the modern world. Subtelny focuses on the historical context and cultural symbiosis, emphasising that modern media continue to play a role in supporting cultural interaction and exchange, and Schluter focuses on modern media, showing how television promotes linguistic hybridity and the preservation of cultural traditions. These studies overlap with this study in that they emphasise the importance of modern media and technologies in the preservation and development of the languages and cultural practices of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia. They demonstrate that modern media provide platforms for expressing and supporting linguistic identity, promoting cultural diversity and interaction. Thus, media and technology are key elements in the process of globalisation, which help to maintain and develop cultural heritage in a rapidly changing world.

Anooshahr (2018) presents an in-depth analysis of the political and cultural processes that influenced the development of Eurasian empires and the invention of traditions in the Turkestan region. The researcher examines how the political leaders and rulers of the Eurasian empires used educational institutions and programmes to create and maintain their power, including not only the training of elites, but also mass education to spread ideology and cultural values. Anooshahr emphasises the importance of media and literature in spreading and maintaining new cultural traditions, including the use of poetry, prose and folklore to create a unified cultural identity and maintain social consensus; the impact of globalisation, examining the impact of globalisation processes on cultural and educational initiatives in the region, leading to the emergence of new educational models and cultural forms, where political leaders have adapted global trends to local conditions by creating hybrid cultural and educational practices. The researcher concludes that the political and cultural elites of the Eurasian empires played a key role in creating and maintaining educational and cultural initiatives aimed at strengthening power and shaping national identity, including the institutionalisation of new traditions, the use of media and literature to popularise cultural norms, and the adaptation of globalisation processes to local conditions. The study by Anooshahr intersects with this research by emphasising the importance of educational and cultural initiatives in the preservation and development of linguistic and cultural identity. Both studies show that educational systems and cultural programmes play a key role in shaping national identity and maintaining cultural heritage. These studies emphasise the importance of an integrated approach to the preservation and development of the linguistic identity of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia.