Association Between Early Marriage and Domestic Violence Among Women in Afghanistan: A Quantitative Study from Bamyan Province

1 Introduction

Domestic violence (DV) remains a critical and pervasive issue across diverse cultures and societies worldwide (Alhabib, Nur, and Jones 2010; Khan et al. 2018; Montoya and Rolandsen Agustín 2013; Semahegn and Mengistie 2015). It is commonly referred to as spousal violence or intimate partner violence and includes physical, emotional, and sexual abuse that severely impacts victims’ physical and psychological well-being including threats and coercion (Alokan 2013; Akbary, Ariyo, and Jiang 2022; Bostock, Plumpton, and Pratt 2009; UN Women 2022; United Nations 1993). The pervasive nature of DV predominantly affects with around one in three women globally and experiencing such violence in their lifetime (UNICEF 2014; WHO 2021). Globally, the prevalence of physical and sexual intimate partner violence varies significantly. For instance, rates of physical violence against women range from 20 % in the Western Pacific region to 35 % in South Asia (WHO 2024; 2021). These variations highlight the influence of regional cultural, economic, and social factors on DV prevalence.

Early marriage or child marriage, which is a public concern (Azizi et al. 2021) defined as formal or informal marriage before the age of 18 with another adult or child (Qamar, Harris, and Tustin 2022; The Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan 2018; UNICEF 2014). The phenomenon counts as a human rights violation (Azizi et al. 2021; Pratiwi 2020; UNICEF 2005) and has high rates of prevalence worldwide with more than 1 in 3 women before the age of 15 (UNICEF 2014) and almost 39,000 child marriages daily (WHO 2013). Regionally, South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa are the most common places of child marriage in the world. Niger in Africa has the highest overall rate of child marriages and Bangladesh in South Asia has the highest rate of very early marriages (UNICEF 2014). The prevalence of early marriage in Afghanistan (as a country in the South Asia context) according to (The Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan 2018; WHO and HRP 2016) shows that 15 % of women who were between 15 and 49 years old, got married before 15 years old and 46 % married before 18 years old. However, statistics are variated from 35 to 50 % of child marriage in Afghanistan based on different studies and official reports (AIHRC 2016; 2017; Qamar, Harris, and Tustin 2022; The Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan 2018; 2014; WHO and HRP 2016).

Early marriage is the critical factor influencing the prevalence and severity of domestic violence and strongly associated with an increased risk of experiencing various forms of it (Azizi et al. 2021; Hong Le et al. 2014; Kidman 2017; Nasrullah, Zakar, and Zakar 2014; Raj et al. 2010; Suyanto et al. 2023; Tran, Nguyen, and Fisher 2016; UNICEF 2005; UNICEF 2014; Verma and Nair 2022). Women who marry early often face greater vulnerability due to limited access to education, economic opportunities, and personal autonomy (Qamar, Harris, and Tustin 2022; Santhya et al. 2010; Singh and Samara 1996; UNICEF 2014). Studies show that early marriage is associated with higher rates of emotional, physical, and sexual violence, as young brides often have less power to assert their rights and are more likely to encounter abusive partners (Drumbl 2004; Pratiwi 2020; 2020; The Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan 2018). The consequences are both destructive and far-reaching, including physical injuries (Mukanangana et al. 2014; Olufunmilola and Olusina 2016; Qamar, Harris, and Tustin 2022) and mental health issues such as stress, anxiety, and depression (Douki et al. 2003; Niaz 2003; Raj et al. 2010; Roberts et al. 1998; Van Mierlo 2012). Additionally, early marriage can lead to sexual health problems like unintended pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections (Jaya and Sandra 2023; Qamar, Harris, and Tustin 2022; Sattarzadeh, Farshbaf-Khalili, and Hatamian-Maleki 2019; WHO 2021). Beyond health effects, early marriage has significant social and economic impacts, including social isolation, reduced economic opportunities, and decreased participation in daily activities (Dasgupta 2000; Kidman 2017; Lloyd 1997; Mukanangana et al. 2014; Santhya et al. 2010; UN Women 2022)

Early marriage is a widespread practice in many regions globally, especially in areas marked by poverty, political instability, and entrenched patriarchal structures. Research indicates that early marriage is not just a social or cultural tradition but a practice deeply connected to power imbalances within families and communities (Jarvinen 1999). Studies conducted in South Asia, the Middle East, and parts of Africa consistently reveal that women who marry young face heightened risks of domestic violence (Niaz 2003; Olayanju et al. 2013). This vulnerability is often due to the limited autonomy, lack of financial independence, and restricted educational opportunities experienced by young brides, which collectively reduce their bargaining power and ability to protect themselves against abuse.

In Afghanistan, early marriage is a common phenomenon influenced by a complex mix of economic hardship, family honor, and traditional beliefs (Echavez, Mosawi, and Pilongo 2016; Qamar, Harris, and Tustin 2022; The Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan 2018; WHO and HRP 2016). Estimates suggest that between 60 % and 80 % of marriages in the country are forced, with nearly half involving girls younger than 18 (Abirafeh 2007). Cultural practices such as badd, where daughters are married to resolve family disputes, and badal, which involves the exchange of brides between families, reinforce the transactional nature of marriage and deprive young women of choice (Drumbl 2004; Echavez, Mosawi, and Pilongo 2016; Kidman 2017; Taqaddausi, Akbary, and Behzad 2023). These practices reflect societal expectations that prioritize family stability and economic survival over the rights and wellbeing of women. Young Afghan women, especially those in rural and semi-rural areas, thus find themselves bound to marriages in which they have minimal control (Drumbl 2004). Forced into these relationships under societal pressure, these women are more likely to experience abuse from their husbands and in-laws, who often view them as property or economic assets (Pratiwi 2020; Qamar, Harris, and Tustin 2022; UNAMA 2022).

The connection between early marriage and domestic violence is a troubling reality for many Afghan women. Recent studies reveal that women married before the age of 15 are particularly at risk of sexual and physical abuse. For instance, Afghan women who married before 15 faced sexual violence at rates 22 % higher than those who married later (Qamar, Harris, and Tustin 2022). These early marriages lead to dependency, as young wives usually have limited access to education and employment (Hasrat 2012; Ibrahimi et al. 2021; Kamal 2006; Mannell et al. 2021; Rastin-tehrani and Yassari 2012; Shayagan 2012; Shayan 2015), which significantly curtails their ability to achieve financial independence. This dependency further entraps women in violent relationships, as economic reliance on their husbands and societal norms discourage leaving abusive situations (Taqaddausi, Akbary, and Behzad 2023). Furthermore, Afghanistan’s legal and social systems often fail to protect victims, particularly in rural settings where informal justice systems typically favor male authority and frequently rule against women seeking divorce or justice for abuse (Echavez, Mosawi, and Pilongo 2016; Pratiwi 2020; Van Mierlo 2012).

Efforts to address domestic violence in Afghanistan face significant obstacles, stemming from both societal attitudes or attitudes toward wife beating and structural challenges. Cultural norms strongly influence perceptions of domestic violence(Akbary, Ariyo, and Jiang 2022; Echavez, Mosawi, and Pilongo 2016; Taqaddausi, Akbary, and Behzad 2023), with abuse often being viewed as a private matter, a belief that discourages reporting and seeking assistance. The influence of informal justice systems, which are commonly used in rural communities (Santhya et al. 2010), further complicates intervention efforts. These systems tend to prioritize family honor over the welfare of individuals, particularly women, and often dismiss or trivialize cases of domestic violence.

While extensive research has explored the association, prevalence, and consequences of domestic violence and early marriage globally, significant gaps remain, particularly in the context of Afghanistan. This research addresses three specific gaps: the lack of region-specific quantitative data on early marriage and DV in Bamyan, as a different socio-cultural region in Afghanistan, limited examination of education and autonomy as factors influencing DV, and insufficient analysis of societal attitudes toward wife beating in the context of early marriage. moreover, we aim to provide insights that are specific to the Bamyan region regarding domestic violence among women married at a young age. These insights aim to inform policies and interventions that address the unique socio-cultural challenges in this region while promoting the rights and protection of women.

In alignment with the research gaps, this study seeks to address the following research questions:

1. What is the association between early marriage and various forms of domestic violence (physical, emotional, and sexual) among women in Bamyan Province, Afghanistan?

2. How do education level, women’s autonomy, and attitudes toward wife beating influence the prevalence and severity of domestic violence in the context of early marriage?

Based on the research questions, the following hypotheses have been developed:

2 Data and Settings

3 Variables

4 Analytical Strategy

We utilized the dataset were collected from Bamyan province of Afghanistan to run a logistic regression model to determine the factors that influence the experience of domestic violence among women in Bamyan. Logistic regression was utilized to investigate the association between age at first marriage and the experience of domestic violence. To begin, descriptive statistical analysis was conducted to present the sample characteristics. Subsequently, considering the hierarchical nature of the data, logistic regression was employed to calculate the odds ratio (OR) for each of the dependent variables. We conducted a chi-square test to show the bivariate association between the dependent and the independent variables. The Chi-square test is used to test the correlation between variables (McCloskey, Williams, and Larsen 2005). To elude multi-collinearity, we conducted a diagnostic check among the socio-cultural variables, all variance inflation factors (VIF) were below 10, with an average VIF of 1.76. All the analyses were performed in STATA V.18.1.

5 Results

6 Discussions

The findings of this study align with existing literature, emphasizing the pervasive and multi-faceted nature of domestic violence (DV) globally and its significant association with early marriage, particularly in regions like Afghanistan. Domestic violence, which includes physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, is a critical issue that affects one in three women worldwide, with variations in prevalence influenced by cultural, economic, and social factors (Alhabib, Nur, and Jones 2010; Khan et al. 2018; Montoya and Rolandsen Agustín 2013; Semahegn and Mengistie 2015). The current study’s findings on the prevalence and risk factors of domestic violence in Bamyan, Afghanistan, contribute to this global discourse, highlighting early marriage as a key determinant of DV.

The study’s results underscore that early marriage significantly increases the odds of experiencing all forms of domestic violence – emotional, physical, and sexual. This is consistent with previous research, which identifies early marriage as a critical factor exacerbating women’s vulnerability to abuse (Azizi et al. 2021; Hong Le et al. 2014; Kidman 2017; Nasrullah, Zakar, and Zakar 2014; Raj et al. 2010). Women who marry before the legal age are more likely to experience various forms of violence due to their limited autonomy, education, and economic opportunities (Qamar, Harris, and Tustin 2022; Santhya et al. 2010; Singh and Samara 1996; The Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan 2018). These women often find themselves in powerless positions, making them more susceptible to abuse by their partners (Drumbl 2004; Pratiwi 2020).

The literature also highlights the broader implications of early marriage, including physical and mental health issues, social isolation, and economic marginalization (Dasgupta 2000; Kidman 2017; Mukanangana et al. 2014). In the context of Afghanistan, where forced and child marriages are prevalent, the consequences of early marriage are particularly severe. The study’s findings resonate with reports indicating that women who marry before the age of 15 experience higher rates of sexual violence (Qamar, Harris, and Tustin 2022) and other forms of abuse, such as honor killings, forced prostitution, and human trafficking (AIHRC 2017; Echavez, Mosawi, and Pilongo 2016; Qamar, Harris, and Tustin 2022; UNICEF 2005).

Furthermore, this study highlights the protective role of autonomy, education, and employment in reducing the odds of domestic violence. These findings are consistent with global literature, which emphasizes the importance of empowering women through education and economic opportunities to mitigate the risk of DV (UNICEF 2014; WHO 2021). In Afghanistan, where women’s access to education and employment is often restricted (Hasrat 2012; Ibrahimi et al. 2021; Kamal 2006; Shayan 2015), enhancing these opportunities is crucial in addressing domestic violence.

Both this study and Qamar (2022) examine early marriage and domestic violence, but with different focuses. Qamar (2022) highlights the link between early marriage and sexual violence, identifying it as the main form of abuse faced by young brides. In contrast, this research shows that early marriage in Afghanistan is associated with not only sexual but also physical and emotional abuse, suggesting a more widespread impact. The findings indicate that early marriage increases the risk of all forms of domestic violence, pointing to a more complex issue than previously documented.

This study provides valuable insights into the complex relationship between early marriage and domestic violence among Afghan women, but it has limitations. The cross-sectional design restricts its ability to establish causal relationships between early marriage, domestic abuse, and socio-demographic factors. Long-term studies are needed to better understand the evolving dynamics. Additionally, the findings specific to Bamyan may not be applicable to other regions of Afghanistan or to countries with different cultural, social, and legal contexts. Future research should utilize longitudinal methods to investigate the causal relationships between early marriage, spousal abuse, and protective factors over time. This approach will provide a deeper understanding of these dynamics. Although this study concentrated on women, it is important for future research and interventions to also examine the role of men in perpetuating domestic abuse and child marriage. Engaging men and boys as advocates for gender equality and healthy relationships is crucial for achieving sustainable change.

7 Conclusions

In conclusion, the analysis of domestic violence among women in Bamyan, Afghanistan, reveals significant associations between various socio-demographic factors and the likelihood of experiencing different forms of domestic violence. Early marriage emerged as a substantial risk factor, with women who married before the legal age more likely experiencing emotional, physical, sexual, and any form of domestic violence. Women with higher autonomy less likely to experience domestic violence across all form of DV, indicating that autonomy is a protective factor of DV. Similarly, disagreeing with wife-beating was associated with lower experience of DV, highlighting the protective effect of rejecting harmful cultural norms. Education also played a crucial role; women with higher levels of education less likely to experience DV. Employment further contributed to lower likelihood of experience of DV.

Strengthening laws against domestic abuse and child marriage is essential. Implementing legal frameworks to protect women’s rights can reduce domestic violence. Grassroots educational initiatives that highlight the harms of early marriage and domestic abuse can help shift societal norms. These programs should involve both genders to promote social change. Projects aimed at enhancing women’s independence – such as job training and education – can economically and socially empower women, making them less vulnerable to domestic abuse. Additionally, accessible support systems for victims of domestic violence are crucial.