Band 1, Heft 2

Blood doping remains a significant problem that threatens the integrity of sport. The current indirect method for detecting blood doping involves the longitudinal measurement of an athlete’s haematological variables and identification of suspicious results that are indicative of doping (i.e., the athlete biological passport). While this has played a significant role in the protection of clean sport, improvements are needed. The development of a transcriptomic test, that can be used to detect the use of blood doping has been discussed and researched for decades and yet, an anti-doping test that can be adopted by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) is yet to be established. With recent advancements in our understanding, as well as in methods of sample collection, the possibility of a transcriptomic test that can be used by WADA, is imminent. There are, however, several practical considerations that must first be made, that will be highlighted in this perspective article.

Background and Aims The Union Cycliste Internationale has deemed transgender female athlete’s ineligible for the female category due to concerns about performance advantages. We conducted a follow-up analysis on laboratory-based performance indicators of sports performance using data from a longitudinally assessed transgender woman athlete undergoing gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT). Methods We evaluated laboratory performance indicators in transgender and cisgender women athletes using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scanning, handgrip strength measurement, jump testing, and cardiopulmonary exercise. Additionally, we assessed a transgender sub-elite cyclist before and after undergoing GAHT. Results After one year of GAHT, the transgender athlete showed declines in handgrip strength (7–13 %), countermovement jump (23–29 %), and V̇O 2 max (15–30 %). After 3 months, several performance indicators (absolute handgrip, peak power, relative peak power, average power, relative average power, V̇O 2 max and relative V̇O 2 max) were above the mean of cisgender female athletes, while others (Relative handgrip, countermovement jump and relative countermovement jump) were below. Similar trends were observed at 6 months and 1 year. Summary This hypothetical analysis, although with limited evidence, suggests the transgender athlete could compete equitably in elite cycling events within the female category after one year of GAHT. Adjustments based on competition data would ensure fairness. Further analysis after an additional 12 months is recommended to assess the impact of 2 years of GAHT. An outright ineligibility for the female category for transgender women athletes would hinder a true assessment of performance fairness.

Introduction Runners from East Africa including Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda have dominated middle- and long-distance running events, for almost six decades. This narrative review examines and updates current understanding of the factors explaining the dominance of East Africans in distance running from a holistic perspective. Content The dominance of East African distance runners has puzzled researchers, with various factors proposed to explain their unparalleled success. Four key elements emerge: 1) biomechanical and physiological attributes, 2) training characteristics, 3) psychological motivations, and 4) African diet. Runners from East Africa often exhibit ectomorphic somatotypes, characterized by lean body compositions which lead them to an extraordinary biomechanical and metabolic efficiency. Their sociocultural lifestyle, training regimens beginning at a young age with aerobic activities, seem crucial, as well as moderate volume, high-intensity workouts at altitudes ranging from 2,000 to 3,000 m. Psychological factors, including a strong motivation to succeed driven by aspirations for socioeconomic improvement and a rich tradition of running excellence, also contribute significantly. A multifactorial explanation considering these factors, without a clear genetic influence, is nowadays the strongest argument to explain the East African phenomenon. Summary and outlook To unravel the mystery behind the supremacy of East African runners, it is imperative to consider these multifaceted factors. The predominantly rural lifestyle of the East African population underscores the importance of aligning modern lifestyles with the evolutionary past of Homo sapiens , where physical activity was integral to daily life. Further research is required to explain this phenomenon, with a focus on genetics.

Objectives This research based on the theoretical framework of globalisation focuses on the development of gender equality policy in the Olympic Movement and the implementation of IOC’s gender equality policy in the context of Chinese elite volleyball. Methods In addition to documentary analysis, 17 semi-structured interviews were conducted with key insiders within Chinese elite volleyball system to provide a comprehensive understanding of the IOC’s gender equality policy implementation. The analysis involved perspectives of athletes’ participation, coaching positions, and leadership roles according to three main elements of the IOC’s gender equality policy. Results The findings demonstrated that the responses of Chinese elite volleyball to IOC’s gender equality policy are participative, conflictual, and passive in terms of the gender balance of athletes’ participation, coaches’ positions, and the representation of leadership roles respectively. Conclusions IOC recommended subordinated stakeholders including NOCs to implement gender equality policy. The attitude of Chinese elite volleyball governing body towards gender equality is generally positive. However, IOC’s gender equality policy is not consistently transferred at national level. Policy might be implemented with symbolic measure in China without monitoring system. Referees should be included in policy contents in addition to athletes, coaches and leaders. In addition, since IOC’s gender equality policy and statistics have been keeping updated, further results with respect to the case of volleyball should be demonstrated in future research.

Objectives Cycling economy is associated with muscle strength in athletes. However, the relationship between strength capacity (i.e. maximal and explosive strength) and cycling economy in previously untrained but healthy individuals remains unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the associations between cycling economy and strength performance in a population of recreationally active but untrained healthy individuals. Methods A total of 155 recreationally active individuals (95 males and 60 females) were included. Strength capacity was assessed through an incremental one-repetition maximum test, from which the one-repetition maximum, mean propulsive velocity, and mean propulsive power were derived as strength indices. Cycling economy was assessed using a step protocol on a cycle ergometer and gross oxygen cost and caloric unit cost were determined at submaximal intensities. Results Marginal R 2 ranged between 0.013 and 0.062 for the gross oxygen cost and between 0.022 and 0.103 for the gross caloric unit cost, respectively. Greater cycling economy is related to higher strength levels. However, the relationship is relatively weak, explaining only 1.3–6.2 % of the variance in gross oxygen cost and 2.2–10.3 % of the variance in gross caloric unit cost. Conclusions Greater cycling economy in recreationally active males and females is related to higher strength levels (i.e. one-repetition maximum, mean propulsive velocity, mean propulsive power).

Objectives Whether low-load resistance training (RT) without muscle failure, with or without blood flow restriction (BFR), is sufficient to increase strength and muscle growth of calf muscles in trained individuals is still unclear. This study aimed to compare the effects of low-intensity BFR RT vs. traditional low-intensity RT (noBFR) with moderate training volume on strength and circumference. Methods We designed a parallel, randomized controlled trial including 36 RT-trained participants (BFR: 7 females, 32.9 ± 8.8 years, 11 males, 28.4 ± 3.6 years; noBFR; 8 females, 29.6 ± 3.4 years; 10 males, 28.6 ± 4.9 years) who underwent eight weeks of twice-weekly low-load RT with a total of 16 RT sets (30 % of one-repetition maximum [1RM]). RT consisted of bilateral calf raises and seated unilateral calf raises, each conducted with 4 sets (30, 15, 15, 15 repetitions not to failure) of either BFR or noBFR. Outcome measures included calf circumference (CC), leg stiffness (LS), and various strength tests (seated and standing calf raise 1RM, isokinetic strength of plantar- and dorsiflexion). Results There were no significant interactions or group effects for most measures. Both groups showed significant improvements in seated calf raise strength (p=0.046, η 2 p =0.17). Pairwise comparisons indicated moderate to large effect sizes for strength improvements (standardized mean differences: 0.35–1.11), but no changes in calf circumference were observed in either group. Conclusions Low-load RT with and without BFR are useful to increase strength without necessarily affecting hypertrophy. Low-intensity BFR training did not confer additional benefits over traditional low-intensity RT for calf muscle strength or circumference, questioning its general advantage under such conditions.

Objectives Caveolin-3 (Cav-3) plays a pivotal role in maintaining skeletal muscle mass and function. Mutations or deletions of Cav-3 can result in the development of various forms of myopathy, which affect the integrity and repair capacity of muscle fiber membranes. However, the potential effect of Cav-3 on myofiber type composition remains unclear. Methods To investigate the effect of Cav-3 on muscle strength and running capacity, we examined the grip force test and the low/high-speed running test. Oxidative and glycolytic myofiber-related genes, proteins, and skeletal muscle fiber composition were measured to determine the role of the Cav-3 in oxidative myofiber formation. Results We report the impact of Cav-3 on enhancing muscle endurance performance in female mice, and the discovery of a new physiological function to increase the proportion of slow-twitch oxidative muscle fiber by analyzing the gastrocnemius and soleus. Skeletal muscle-specific ablation of Cav-3 in female mice increased oxidative myofiber-related gene expression and type I oxidative myofiber composition, with resultant improvements in endurance performance. In male mice, the absence of Cav-3 in skeletal muscle reduced in the expression of glycolytic fiber-related genes and proteins. Conclusions This study identified Cav-3 as a regulator of slow-twitch oxidative muscle fiber formation acting on female mice, which may provide a potential target for improving muscle oxidative function.

Objectives This study aimed to investigate the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of aerobic intermittent exercise on cognitive impairment by PM 2.5 exposure. Methods Thirty-two rats were randomly divided into four groups: sedentary, exercise, sedentary + PM 2.5 exposure, and exercise + PM 2.5 exposure. The exercise groups underwent 8 weeks of exercise training (5 days of exercise per week). Subsequently, PM 2.5 exposure groups were subjected to PM 2.5 for three weeks. Post-exposure, we assessed cognitive abilities (shuttle box test), hippocampal tissue structure, related inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β), the protein of inflammatory responses mechanism (P65, IκκB) and cognitive-related protein levels (BDNF, Aβ-42). Results PM 2.5 exposure caused cognitive impairment, abnormal histopathological changes, reduced cognitive related protein and increased pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. Analysis of shuttle box test data revealed significant main effects on the passive avoidance latency times measured in rats (p<0.05). Aerobic intermittent exercise improves spatial learning decline in rats induced by PM 2.5 . Conversely, the Exercise + PM 2.5 group demonstrated a significant reduction in latency of 24.9 % compared to the Sedentary + PM 2.5 group (p<0.05, ES=1.41). Conclustion Aerobic intermittent exercise may help in protecting against the decrease of cognitive ability induced by PM 2.5 exposure.