Volume 78, Issue 2

The focus of this review is on landscape genetics (LG), a relatively new discipline that arose approximately 10 years ago. LG spans the interface between population genetics and landscape ecology and thus incorporates the concepts, methods, and tools from both disciplines. On the basis of an understanding of the spatial distribution of genetic diversity, LG aims to explain how landscape and environmental characteristics influence microevolutionary processes and metapopulation dynamics, including gene flow (i.e., connectivity) and selection (i.e., local adaptations). LG is concerned with events that occurred during the recent time scale, and the individual is the operational unit. As a discipline that combines spatial genetic diversity with ecological features, LG is able to address questions relating to different evolutionary processes. We illustrate some of these here using examples taken from mammals: population structure; gene flow and the identification of barriers; fragmentation, connectivity, and corridors; local adaptation and selection; there are two different questions: applications in conservation genetics; and future developments in LG. We will then present the methods and tools commonly used in the different steps of LG analyses: the genetic and landscape sampling, the quantification of genetic variation, the characterization of spatial landscape structures, and finally, the correlation between genetic patterns and landscape features.

We analyzed whether the spatial variation in mammal species richness reflects the southern boundaries of the Nearctic region as previously established by endemism patterns. Records from 710 mammal species were drawn on a map of North America (from Canada and Alaska to Panama) gridded at 4° latitude-longitude. We evaluated the probable existence of unknown species through three richness estimators (Chao2, ICE, and Jack1), modeled the potential distribution of species, and mapped the predicted pattern of species richness through the number of coexisting potential distributions. The poorest grid cells are in the northern areas, whereas the richest ones are in the southern areas, coinciding with the pattern of collecting points. The average richness of 4° grid cells comprising the Nearctic region was 18 species, and the richest 4° grid cells had 150 species, coinciding with the 26° latitude. From the 406 mammal species of the Nearctic region, 104 are restricted to it, and 305 species situated south of it are not distributed in the region. The map of predicted richness shows the classical latitudinal diversity gradient, with the number of species increasing to the tropics. We conclude that the Nearctic region has a low mammal richness, with a richness pattern corresponding with previously described patterns of endemism, with a boundary situated at 26°–30° latitude.

Ranging behavior and habitat utilization are important indicators of ecological influences on individual behavior. We collected data on the ranging behavior and habitat use of two groups of Assamese macaques ( Macaca assamensis ) between September 2005 and August 2006 in a limestone habitat within Nonggang Nature Reserve, Guangxi, China. We evaluated the influences of spatial and temporal distribution of food resources on ranging behavior and habitat utilization. During the study period, total home range sizes for the two focus groups were 53 ha and 65 ha; mean daily path lengths were 590 m and 782 m, much smaller than those observed in other species of macaques. Assamese macaques did not use their home ranges uniformly. Fifty percent of location records occurred within 11% (group 1) and 13% (group 2) of their respective home ranges. A significant and positive correlation was found between the intensity of site use and the distribution of group feeding for both study groups. Macaques spent 71.1% of the daytime hours on cliffs during maintenance activities, including feeding. The differential utilization of the group’s home range and more intense occupation of cliffs can be related to the spatial distribution of their staple food resources, the leaves of Indocalamus calcicolus .

After decades of banning commercial hunting, the population of the endangered giant river otter in South America is no larger than 5000 animals, with slightly increasing populations, and apparent reoccupation of parts of its historical distribution. In Brazil, which may hold the largest populations, the refinement of distributional data and the conduction of censuses in Amazonia were identified as essential for the conservation of the species. To confirm if the species was, in fact, reoccupying its historical area, we present here data collected between October 2004 and September 2008 in Amanã Reserve, Central Amazonia. A total of 18,181 km along 13 water bodies were surveyed in 465 days of fieldwork, resulting in 711 records. Animals presented a uniform occupation pattern, with expansion to new areas, no vacancy of previously used ones, and with frequent reuse of sites along the years. However, considering the number of records/km and sightings/km were almost constant between years, the local population may be experiencing just a slight increase, with animals probably expanding their home ranges. Although our study witnessed some population growth, giant river otters remained at low numbers during the survey, indicating that such population still have not reached its carrying capacity and require continuous attention.

Most wild Sahelian rodents display a seasonal reproduction that is usually related to rainfall, hence resources availability. Mastomys natalensis is a well-documented and major pest rodent species. In East Africa where it occurs outdoors, the species is characterized by marked population cycles. In contrast, it is mostly associated with humans in West Africa, and appears to live strictly indoors in the Sahel. Here, we have monitored the proportions of M. natalensis juveniles and sexually active adults within the city of Niamey, Niger. Our survey clearly shows that M. natalensis reproduces all year long, with no detectable seasonality. Altogether, our data confirm that reproduction may shift from seasonal to continuous when conditions are more favorable. They also suggest that the urban environment may represent an extreme habitat where resources are permanently available. From the perspective of rodent control in Niamey, our results highlight the need for a constant management policy that should be performed by public authorities.

Pigmentation disorders, either from the complete absence (albinism), partial (leucism), or excess (melanism) of melanin, are rare in vertebrates. Worldwide, only a few records of these disorders had been reported for bats. Thanks to recent fieldwork and examination of museum specimens of the collections of the AMNH and MUSM, we report five species with those conditions in Peru. In this study, we report the first cases of leucism in Artibeus anderseni , Chiroderma trinitatum , and Desmodus rotundus and partial melanism in Carollia perspicillata . Additionally, we report the first record of an albino bat ( Molossus molossus ) for Peru.

I examined a sample comprising 1090 intact skulls, representing all recognized Palearctic species of pika ( Ochotona ), as well as 394 complete sequences of the cytochrome b gene from all recognized pika species. The results of the analyses suggest that 28 species should be recognized in the genus. Six of these species are “allospecies” (allopatric taxa with vague taxonomic rank) or could potentially be reduced to subspecific rank if one accepts the principle of the strict monophyly within species. Two taxa ( Ochotona himalayana and O. muliensis ) are considered to be junior synonyms of O. roylei and O. gloveri , respectively. Recent hybridization between O. nubrica and O. curzoniae with elimination of O. nubrica ’s mtDNA is hypothesized. Analysis of the type specimens of O. huangensis indicates that this name is the junior synonym of O. dauurica ; the senior synonym for taxon from the thibetana group, for which the name “ O. huangensis ” was used previously, is O. syrinx .

Two observations of the rare marsupial Glironia venusta accompanied by offspring were made in the states of Pará and Mato Grosso, Brazil. In December of 2011, a female with three cubs was captured in the municipality of Jacareacanga-PA. In July of 2012, another female, also with three cubs, was observed foraging in a forest matrix in the municipality of Paranaíta-MT. It was observed that, just as other neotropical marsupials, G. venusta can present a gummivorous diet on some occasions. Food availability seems to interfere in the reproduction period of this species such as in marsupials of the Caluromys genus. In addition, these new records corroborate results presented by other recent findings, indicating that the geographic distribution of this species in Brazil is more extensive than thought before and can include disturbed areas in the Amazon forest.

The viscacha rat Octomys mimax is endemic to western Argentina; it inhabits lowland deserts and uses rocky crevices as resting sites. The aim of this study was to assess macrohabitat selection relative to the occurrence of rocky crevices and to evaluate seasonal variations in macrohabitats selected by this rodent in Ischigualasto Provincial Park, San Juan, Argentina. Random locations were classified as used or available based on signs recorded in rocky crevices. We confirmed the absence of the viscacha rat in macrohabitats with sandy or silty substrates. We provide new records of viscacha rat in creosote bush scrub, the most abundant macrohabitat of the Monte Desert. This result extends the known range of macrohabitat use for this species. The viscacha rat increased the number of rocky crevices used in the dry season, probably because the species increased its foraging area due to the low food resource abundance. Another possible reason is an increase in density due to new births and dispersal of young in this season. The present study highlights the importance of considering signs of presence for species with low capturability as well as of collecting data throughout multiple seasons for a better understanding of habitat selection and species distribution.

Quills represent specialized morphological structures evolved by some mammal species to deter predators. Among quilled mammals, crested porcupines Hystrix spp. exhibit the most complex armor. The antipredator behavior of these rodents is poorly known. In this study, we describe in detail the defense strategies of Hystrix cristata when attacked by hunting dogs. We identified four kinds of display exhibited by porcupines. Tail rattling seems to be sufficient to repel solitary predators, while backyard/sideways attacks are exhibited only in extreme situations, or when numerical disparity among potential prey and predators occurs. We also report four cases of wild species killing by porcupines.

Killing behavior and consumption rate are important components that determine the final predation rate. We studied the predatory behavior of a female jaguar with one offspring in Hato Piñero in Venezuelan Los Llanos. Seven carcasses of freshly killed calves were found over a period of 9 days. Automatic video recording was used to document the jaguar’s behavior. Our study revealed a detailed, repetitive sequence of female jaguar behavior while hunting for calves. The sequence started with the female killing a calf by biting through the skull or neck, then she dragged the carcass to concealment, eviscerated it and left it concealed; then, the next evening, the female returned with its cub, fed intermittently for a total time of about 90 min while in the meantime it hunted for new prey. All this sequence seems to have a highly adaptive significance for a female jaguar rearing cubs and utilizing large prey. During the short period of our observations, the estimated kill rate of the female jaguar with one offspring was from 0.67 to 1 calf per day. Proper cattle management is necessary to avoid high losses of calves from predation by jaguars.

Eurasian otters ( Lutra lutra ) have experienced dramatic population declines that have resulted in the extirpation of the species from several parts of their original distribution and have led most European countries to initiate systematic monitoring and management efforts. We present the results of a long-term study (2010–2012) of this endangered species in northwestern Greece. Occurrence of otters at the Lakes Zazari and Himaditida was assessed using standard sign surveys, dietary habits were investigated through spraint analysis, and activity patterns were studied using automatic infrared cameras. Otter occurrence was widespread throughout the study area and continuous during the monitoring period and included the presence of a family group. Otter diet included a high proportion of birds, and activity was nocturnal. More systematic monitoring and management efforts and the development of a Species Action Plan are necessary to ensure the survival of the Eurasian otter in Greece.

To date, Crocidura pachyura is considered to occur in Tunisia and the Mediterranean islands Pantelleria, Sardinia, and Ibiza, and its presence in eastern Algeria is questioned. During recent small mammal surveys in Kabylie (Algeria), 30 new specimens of shrews were collected in three different localities (Cap Djinet, Boukhalfa, and Darna). By sequencing one mitochondrial (cytochrome b ) and two nuclear (intron 14 of the Y-linked DBY gene and intron 6 of the X-linked zinc finger protein gene) genes, we confirm the presence of C. pachyura in Algeria from sea level up to 1150 m a.s.l. The sister species of C. pachyura is Crocidura russula , a species widely distributed in western Algeria, Morocco, and Europe. We did not detect any signal of hybridization between these two species in Kabylie.

The reliability of species identification is of primary importance as much of biodiversity studies, ecology, legislation, and conservation are based on this taxonomic level. Species identification problems can obscure the conservation status, especially for rare and endangered species, which are of special concern for conservation. This problem is especially significant for some taxonomic groups such as chiropterans, as many monitoring programs are run during the hibernation season when animals should not be disturbed, hence not handled. In the present study, we used Rhinolophus mehelyi as a case study to develop and propose a new monitoring strategy via the use of non-invasive genetics to reliably identify individuals to species.

The present study reports the southernmost record of Tomopeas ravus and the first capture of this species after more than 30 years since the last known report. This record extends the distribution of the species approximately 230 km south of the current known distributional range.

We present a total of 190 new distribution records of three little-known mammalian carnivores ( Conepatus chinga , Galictis cuja , and Lycalopex culpaeus ) obtained using camera trap techniques and direct observation in the highlands of Jujuy province, northwestern Argentina. These new records extend the present known distributions of these three species to the west of the province and to higher altitudes, and provide additional information on habitat association and activity patterns.

Recent small mammal surveys in central Algeria (Hadjeb El Djmel, 50 km of Djelfa) allowed us to mention for the first time the presence of Gerbillus latastei in this country, and to extend its geographical range of about 410 km to the west. Our cytochrome b sequencing analyses show that the new Algerian population clusters with the Tunisian one, without phylogeographical structure within this species. Our phylogenetic analyses allowed to precisely determine the phylogenetic relationship of G. latastei among the Gerbillinae. It belongs to the subgenus Gerbillus and seems to be close to two endemic Moroccan species ( G. hoogstrali and G. hesperinus ). Further works will be necessary to better understand the ecology, distribution, and phylogenetic history of this species.