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Background Idiopathic central diabetes insipidus (CDI) has been associated with intracranial pathologies that do not involve the structural pituitary gland or hypothalamus. The objective was to study the association between non-structural hypothalamic/pituitary intracranial pathologies (NSHPIP) with CDI and to review etiologies that may be contributory to the development of CDI. Methods A retrospective query of our intra-institutional database from 2006 to 2015. Children admitted diagnosed with diabetes insipidus (DI) (ICD-9 253.5) between the ages of 0–1 year were included. Patient charts were reviewed to include those who have a documented diagnosis of CDI, hypernatremia (>145 mmol/L), high serum osmolality (>300 mOsm/kg), low urine osmolality (<300 mOsm/kg), and brain imaging reports. Diagnoses of nephrogenic DI were excluded. Results Twenty-three infant patients were diagnosed with CDI. Eleven subjects (48%) had NSHPIP. Of those, 18% had cerebral infarction, 27% had intracranial injury and hemorrhage due to traumatic brain injury, 18% had isolated intraventricular hemorrhage, and 27% had meningitis. Hospital prevalence for NSHPIP, age 0–1 year, ranged from 0.05% to 0.3%. Conclusions Rates of NSHPIP in those with CDI are higher than expected hospital rates (p<0.001), suggesting a possible association between CDI and NSHPIP.

Background Adipokines were shown to affect glucose homeostasis and β-cell function in patients with pancreatic dysfunction which is associated with changes in the adipose tissue secretory profile. However, information about adipokines associated with β-cell dysfunction is lacking in pediatric patients with type 1 diabetes. Methods (1) We compared serum concentrations of nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), omentin-1 and caspase-cleaved cytokeratin 18 fragment M30 (CK-18) in pediatric type 1 diabetes patients (n=245) and healthy age, sex and body mass index standard deviation score (BMI-SDS) matched controls (n=243). (2) We investigated the influence of insulin treatment on serum concentrations of NAMPT, omentin-1 and CK-18 in groups of patients with type 1 diabetes stratified according to the duration of their disease: at onset (n=50), ≥6 months and <5 years (n=185), ≥5 and <10 years (n=98), and ≥10 years (n=52). Results Patients at onset compared with healthy controls demonstrated no significant differences in NAMPT levels (p=0.129), whereas omentin-1 levels were elevated (p<0.001) and CK-18 levels were lowered (p=0.034). In contrast, NAMPT and omentin-1 were elevated and CK-18 serum levels were lower in longstanding patients compared to healthy controls (p<0.001). NAMPT serum levels did not change significantly during the duration of type 1 diabetes (p=0.546). At onset, omentin-1 and CK-18 levels were higher than in any group of longstanding type 1 diabetes (p<0.025). Conclusions Altered serum levels of NAMPT, omentin-1 and CK-18 in pediatric type 1 diabetes patients indicate metabolic changes caused by adipose tissue dysregulation which do not normalize during insulin therapy.

Background Different anthropometric parameters have been proposed for assessing central obesity in children, but the ability of these anthropometric parameters to correctly measure central obesity in Pakistani children is questionable and needs to be assessed. The aims of this investigation were to examine the diagnostic performance of anthropometric parameters as indicators of central obesity in Pakistani children as measured by waist circumference (WC) and to determine the sex-specific best cut-off values for these parameters that would identify obese children. Methods Anthropometric measurements – height, weight, WC, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), conicity index (CI) and neck circumference (NC) – from a cross-sectional sample of 5964 Pakistani children aged 5–12 years were analyzed. Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) analysis was used to examine the diagnostic performance and to determine the optimal cut-off point of each anthropometric parameter for identifying centrally obese children. Results It was found that WC had a significantly positive correlation with all studied anthropometric parameters. The ROC curve analysis indicated that all the parameters analyzed had good performance but WHtR had the highest value of the area under the curve (AUC). Optimal cut-off points associated with central obesity for boys and girls were, respectively, 0.47 and 0.48 for WHtR, 1.20 and 1.23 for CI, 0.96 and 0.96 for WHR and 26.36 and 26.54 cm for NC. Conclusions The sex-specific cut-off points for WHtR, CI, WHR and NC can be used to detect central obesity in Pakistani children.

Background Glycogen storage disease type III (GSDIII), due to a deficiency of glycogen debrancher enzyme (GDE), is particularly frequent in Tunisia. Phenotypic particularities of Tunisian patients remain unknown. Our aim was to study complications of GSDIII in a Tunisian population and to explore factors interfering with its course. Methods A retrospective longitudinal study was conducted over 30 years (1986–2016) in the referral metabolic center in Tunisia. Results Fifty GSDIII patients (26 boys), followed for an average 6.75 years, were enrolled. At the last evaluation, the median age was 9.87 years and 24% of patients reached adulthood. Short stature persisted in eight patients and obesity in 19 patients. Lower frequency of hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) was associated with older patients (p<0.0001), higher protein diet (p=0.068) and lower caloric intake (p=0.025). Hepatic complications were rare. Cardiac involvement (CI) was frequent (91%) and occurred early at a median age of 2.6 years. Severe cardiomyopathy (50%) was related to lower doses of uncooked cornstarch (p=0.02). Neuromuscular involvement (NMI) was constant, leading to a functional discomfort in 64% of cases and was disabling in 34% of cases. Severe forms were related to lower caloric (p=0.005) and protein intake (p<0.015). Conclusions A low caloric, protein and uncooked cornstarch intake is associated with a more severe outcome in GSDIII Tunisian patients. Neuromuscular and CIs were particularly precocious and severe, even in childhood. Genetic and epigenetic factors deserve to be explored.

Background Children with congenital hypothyroidism (CH) are at risk for preventable intellectual disability without adequate medical management. The purpose of this manuscript is to discuss quality improvement (QI)-based processes for improving provider adherence to practice guidelines and ultimately identifying at-risk patients with chronic illness prior to the occurrence of adverse events. Methods Our study population included patients ages ≤3 years diagnosed with CH; lost to follow-up was defined as >180 days since last evaluation by an endocrinology provider. Iterative testing of interventions focused on establishing standardized care through (1) registry-based identification, (2) scheduling future appointments during current visits, (3) outreach to patients lost to follow-up and (4) provider and family education of current practice guidelines. Results A population-validated, electronic medical registry identified approximately 100 patients ages ≤3 years diagnosed with CH; initially, 12% of patients met criteria for lost to follow-up. Through serial testing of interventions, the rate of loss to follow-up declined to the goal of <5% within 8 months. Additional measures showed improvement in provider adherence to standard of care. All patients identified as lost to follow-up initially were seen within the first 3 months of intervention. Conclusions Applying QI methodology, a multidisciplinary team implemented a process to identify and contact high-risk CH patients with inadequate follow-up. Focused interventions targeting population management, scheduling and patient/provider education yield sustained improvement in the percentage of patients with a chronic condition who are lost to follow-up.

Background High goiter prevalence caused by iodine deficiency (medium content 5.6 mg potassium iodide [KI]/kg of salt, median urine iodine concentration [UIC] 68 μg/L) in Croatia was observed in 1991 and 1995 when salt was iodized with 10 mg KI/kg. A new regulation introduced in 1996, specified 25 mg KI/kg of salt resulting in an increase of median UIC to 248 μg/L. Afterwards, goiter prevalence was only assessed in two small studies. Methods In this study, we investigated the prevalence and etiology of goiter in 3594 schoolchildren 17 years after an increase in salt iodization in Croatia. Thyroid size was determined by palpation in 1777 girls and 1817 boys aged 10–18 years. In goitrous children, a thyroid ultrasound and thyroid-stimulating hormone, free thyroxine (fT4), free triiodothyronine (fT3), thyroid peroxidase (TPO) and thyroglobulin (TG) antibody measurements were performed. Results Goiter was found in 32 children (0.89% vs. 2.8% in 1991, p<0.00001 and 27% in 1995, p<0.00001), simple goiter (SG) in 18/32 (56%) goitrous children vs. 126/152 (82.8%) in 1991 p<0.00001, autoimmune thyroiditis (AT) in 13/32 (40.6%) vs. 19/152 (12.5%) in 1991 p<0.0009, nodules in four: two cysts, toxic adenoma and carcinoma (in 1991 two adenomas and one cyst), Graves’ disease was not found (four in 1991). Subclinical hypothyroidism was found in three children. Thyroid disease was diagnosed in four of 32 children before the investigation. Increased iodine supply decreased goiter prevalence and SG/AT ratio in goitrous patients. Conclusions As thyroid abnormalities were found in 0.89% of children and some required treatment, thyroid examination is important in apparently healthy children regardless of sufficient iodization.

Background It has been suggested that thyroid hormone concentration at birth may have some role in regulating foetal growth. The aim of this study was to provide seminal data regarding any association between thyrotropin (TSH) concentration within the normal range and growth parameters at birth in full-term newborns. Methods In this cross-sectional study conducted in Tehran, Iran, 314 mother-newborn pairs were randomly selected from health care centres responsible for congenital hypothyroidism screening. Neonatal TSH concentration was measured using a heel-prick blood sample taken from all neonates 3–5 days after birth, as part of the routine neonate screening. Anthropometrics, including birth weight, length and head circumference were obtained from the birth record of each neonate. The z-score values for weight-for-age, weight-for-length, length-for-age and head-for-age were calculated using the World Health Organisation growth standards. Results The median interquartile range neonatal TSH values were 0.9 mIU/L (0.4–1.7 mIU/L). Neonates in the top tertile of TSH values had higher birth weights and weight-for-age z-scores than those in the bottom tertile (p<0.05). In addition, neonatal TSH was associated with weight-for-age z-scores in unadjusted (β=0.113, p=0.020) and adjusted (β=0.122, p=0.013) analysis. However, in both unadjusted and adjusted analysis, no association was observed between TSH concentrations of neonates and weight-for-length, length-for-age and head-for-age z-scores. Conclusions Our findings indicate a positive association between the normal range of neonatal screening TSH concentration and birth weight; however, this association was not observed for other anthropometric parameters at birth.

Background Our objectives were to evaluate the etiology of short stature, assess the prevalence of idiopathic short stature (ISS) and assess the growth hormone (GH)-insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis in children with ISS. Methods A stepwise diagnostic evaluation was done in 394 children aged 4–16 years with short stature. Children with no definitive etiology were labeled as ISS. In these children, baseline IGF-1, IGF binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) and stimulated IGF-1 after administration of GH for 4 days were measured. Results Hypothyroidism (in 18.1%) and ISS (in 15.5%) were the commonest causes of short stature. In children with ISS (n=61), the mean baseline and stimulated IGF-1 standard deviation scores (SDSs) were −1.2±1.0 and −0.3±1.4, respectively, with levels below −2 SDS in 13 (21%) and six (10%) children, respectively. In 33 (54%) of the ISS patients, response to GH was suboptimal (increment in the IGF-1 level <40%). There was no difference in the mean peak GH, IGFBP-3 and baseline and stimulated IGF-1 levels between children with familial and non-familial ISS. A significant positive correlation of height SDS with baseline IGF-1 SDS (r=0.28, p=0.026), stimulated IGF-1 SDS (r=0.32, p=0.010) and ΔIGF-1 SDS (r=0.26, p=0.036) was observed in children with ISS. Conclusions Hypothyroidism and ISS were the commonest etiologies for short stature. The baseline IGF-1 was below −2 SDS in 21% and the increment after GH stimulation was suboptimal in 54% of children, indicating that a substantial proportion of children with ISS had an impaired GH-IGF axis.

Background The dose of hydrocortisone therapy required to maintain normal growth in infants with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency is lower than in later childhood. This reflects the presence of excess non-aromatisable rather than aromatisable androgen but there has been relatively little focus on the role of mineralocorticoid therapy. Methods Growth data of infants with CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (2008–2016) were reviewed and information regarding hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone regimen was collected. Change in height standard deviation (SD) and height velocity standard deviation score (SDS) were analysed during the first year of life. Results Growth data from 13 children (8 M) were analysed. Height (length) declined from a median of −0.69 SD at 3 months to −1.23 SD at 12 months with a reduction in height velocity SDS from 0.02 between 3 and 6 months to −2.22 between 9 and 12 months (p=0.017) despite a hydrocortisone dose at the lower end of the range as recommended in consensus guidelines. The glucocorticoid activity of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone was negatively associated with growth velocity (r=−0.55; p=0.049) although renin activity was not suppressed. Conclusions Infants with 21-hydroxylase deficiency can be managed with replacement hydrocortisone. The reasons for this paradigm are now understood although our data confirm that the glucocorticoid activity of fludrocortisone needs to be taken into consideration as well.

Background Transnasal surgery (TNS) is the first choice in the treatment of pediatric Cushing’s disease. The question is how can high remission rates be achieved with minimally invasive investigations and TNS whilst avoiding radiotherapy or bilateral adrenalectomy in children. Methods Data from a published series 1 (n=55) of surgeon DKL will be compared with his recent series 2 (n=45) until 2009. All patients were operated by direct transnasal microsurgery. Over time, inferior petrosal sinus sampling (IPSS) was replaced by cavernous sinus sampling (CSS), restricted to unclear cases without increase of salivary cortisol in corticotropin-releasing hormone-test, difficult sellar anatomy or negative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Multiple direct intra-operative micro-cytology, micro-doppler and adequate visualization techniques are described. Results In series 1, IPSS was performed in 13 (24%) of whom 46% had false adenoma lateralization. All adenomas could be removed with extensive pituitary exploration. Three patients had early successful re-surgery. In series 2, with more refined MRI and endocrinology, CSS was used in only seven patients (15%) and all micro-adenomas were correctly localized. In three of four patients with persistent cortisol excess, repeat-TNS was necessary and successful. Side effects of TNS were minimal. Recurrence rates were 16% and 11% in series 1 and 2, respectively. Only four of 100 children with invasive adenomas were irradiated, significantly less than in other experienced pediatric centers. Conclusions Thus, 98% remission rate could be achieved with fewer invasive pre-surgical investigations, such as central catheter studies, refined TNS and early repeat-TNS. Repeat-TNS in recurrences minimized the need for irradiation.

Background: The objective of the study was to investigate the response of 64Arg allele carriers of the ADRB3 gene ( Trp64Arg polymorphism) in the anthropometric, cardiorespiratory and metabolic variables in overweight adolescents after a 12-week aerobic exercise and nutritional program. Methods: A total of 92 overweight adolescents, 10–16 years old and of both genders, participated. Body composition, waist circumference (WC), pubertal stage status, blood pressure, glucose, insulin and lipid profile and direct maximal oxygen uptake were assessed at baseline and after 12 weeks of a training program. The homeostasis metabolic assessments [homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR)] and quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (QUICKI) were determined and the Trp64Arg polymorphism of the ADRB3 gene was investigated by Taqman single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping assays. Exercise sessions consisted of 100-min aerobic exercise and 20-min stretching, 3 times a week, totalizing 36 sessions. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and effect size were used for variables, with p<0.05 considered significant. Results: In baseline, HOMA-IR was higher in carriers of the 64Arg allele and decreased more after 12 weeks than in non-carriers (p=0.01). The anthropometric, physical fitness and metabolic profiles had similar responses after training in carriers and non-carriers. Conclusions: Overweight adolescents present changes in body composition and physical fitness, independent of Trp64Arg genotypes. However, a 12-week aerobic exercise and nutritional program promoted greater reductions in insulin resistance in carriers of the 64Arg allele.

Background Metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD) is an autosomal recessively (AR) inherited disease caused by the deficiency of the enzyme arylsulfatase A (ARSA). Although MLD is the most common form of hereditary leukoencephalopathy, it is still very rare. More than 200 gene mutations have been identified in the ARSA gene. The most frequently identified mutation is the one located on chromosome 22q13.33. In the present study, new mutations are reported in two siblings of different ages and with different clinical presentations. Case presentation A 9-year-old male patient, suffering from ataxia, attention deficit and perceptual difficulties, was first seen at the age of 7. While the findings of neurological examination and neuroradiological evaluation suggested MLD, the ARSA enzyme levels were analyzed and found to be at a lower limit. Genetic analysis revealed variant homozygous mutations of the ARSA gene at p.N352S/c.1055T>C in exon 6 and at p.E331K/c.991G>A in exon 7. In the genetic analysis of his three siblings and parents, a variant heterozygous mutation of the ARSA gene was detected at p.N352S/c.1055T>C in exon 6 and at p.E331K/c.991G>A in exon 7. Conclusions MLD is a rare disease; however, it is likely to find different variant forms in our population, in which the frequency of consanguineous marriages is high. Genetic diagnosis is important in symptomatic cases with enzyme levels within the normal ranges.

Background Neonatal diabetes mellitus (NDM) is defined as a monogenic form of diabetes that occurs in the first 6 months of life. As information on diet in NDM patients successfully treated with sulfonylurea is not yet available, we aimed to investigate the hypothesis that a carb-restricted diet is not needed in such cases. Case presentation In this case report, we present a successful implementation of a completely liberalized diet in a young patient with NDM, developmental delay and epilepsy (DEND syndrome), who was also switched to sulfonylurea treatment. The excellent metabolic control during follow-up despite completely ignoring any diet suggests that at least in some patients this approach might work. Conclusions If our proposed hypothesis is also confirmed by other reports, it might add significantly to the quality of life of these patients and broaden the knowledge in this medical field.

Background Van Wyk-Grumbach syndrome (VWGS) is characterized by juvenile primary hypothyroidism, delayed bone age and isosexual incomplete precocious puberty with reversal to the prepubertal state following thyroid hormone replacement. Case presentation In this case, an 18-month-old girl presented with premature menarche since 9 months of age, delayed bone age and enlarged bilateral multicystic ovaries along with a superficial infantile hemangioma over the upper anterior chest. VWGS was diagnosed based on the clinical features. High serum thyroid stimulating hormone and low free thyroxine with the absence of any carpal bones in the wrist X-ray were suggestive of congenital hypothyroidism. Interestingly, the coexisting hemangioma could also play a role in the etiology of the hypothyroidism through “consumptive hypothyroidism”. Thyroid hormone replacement resulted in the complete resolution of signs and symptoms. Conclusions Untreated congenital hypothyroidism of short duration, onset of symptoms in infancy and association of an infantile hemangioma in VWGS were the unique features in our case.

Background Excessive iodine exposure is an often overlooked cause of neonatal hypothyroidism. Case presentation We present an infant with iodine-induced hypothyroidism, which was detected at age 15 days by newborn screening. The infant’s iodine excess resulted from maternal intake of seaweed soup both during and after pregnancy. Treatment included discontinuation of seaweed soup, temporary interruption of breastfeeding and short-term levothyroxine therapy. By age 4 months, the infant’s hypothyroidism had resolved, and her growth and development were normal. Conclusions This case illustrates the importance of considering excess dietary iodine as a possible cause of hypothyroidism in infants.