Abstract
This article takes seriously Edward Sapir’s observation about poetry as an example of linguistic relativity. Taking my cue from Dwight Bolinger’s “word affinities,” this article reports on the ways sounds of poetry evoke and convoke imaginative possibilities through phonological iconicity. In working with Navajos in translating poetry, I have come to appreciate the sound suggestiveness of that poetry and the imaginative possibilities that are bound up in the sounds of Navajo. It seems that just such sound suggestiveness via phonological iconicity and the ways they orient our imaginations are a crucial locus for thinking through linguistic relativities.
Acknowledgement
*I want to thank the numerous Navajos – poet and non-poet alike – who have taken the time to talk with me about Navajo poetry and the Navajo language more generally. I especially thank Rex Lee Jim, Blackhorse Mitchell, Laura Tohe, Wesley Thomas, Damien Jones, Gloria Emerson, Martha Austin-Garrison, Sherwin Bitsui, and Orlando White for their insights. Research on the Navajo Nation was done under permits from the Historic Preservation Office. I thank them. I thank Aimee Hosemann, Barbra Meek, Luke Fleming, Tony Woodbury, Joel Sherzer, Polly Strong, Joyce McDonough, Paul Kockelman, Sean O’Neill and the late Brian Stross for comments on various topics taken up in this paper. Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the University of Texas at Austin and the University of Rochester. I thank those in attendance for useful comments and questions.
References
Aberle, David.1961. Navaho. In DavidSchneider & KathleenGough (eds.), Matrilineal kinship, 96–201. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Search in Google Scholar
Bakhtin, Mikhail.1986. Speech genres and other late essays. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.Search in Google Scholar
Basso, Ellen.1985. A musical view of the universe. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.10.9783/9781512819656Search in Google Scholar
Basso, Keith.1996. Wisdom sits in places: Western Apache language and landscape. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Search in Google Scholar
Bauman, Richard & CharlesBriggs.2003. Voices of modernity: Language ideologies and the politics of inequality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511486647Search in Google Scholar
Becker, Alton.1995. Beyond translation: Essays toward a modern philology. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.10.3998/mpub.13805Search in Google Scholar
Berry, Wendell.2010. What are people for? Essays. Berkeley, CA: Counterpoint.Search in Google Scholar
Boas, Franz.1889. On alternating sounds. American Anthropologists2. 47–53.10.1525/aa.1889.2.1.02a00040Search in Google Scholar
Bolinger, Dwight.1940. Word affinities. American Speech15(1). 62–73.10.2307/452731Search in Google Scholar
Bolinger, Dwight.1949. The sign is not arbitrary. Boletín del Instituto Caro y Cuervo5. 52–62.Search in Google Scholar
Cavanaugh, Jillian.2009. Living memory: The social aesthetics of language in a northern Italian town. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.10.1002/9781444308273Search in Google Scholar
Diffloth, Gérard1976. Expressives in Semai. In PhilipJenner, Laurence C.Thompson & StanleyStarosta (eds.), Austroasiatic studies: Part I (Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 13), 229–248. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii.Search in Google Scholar
Durbin, Marshall.1973. Sound symbolism in the Mayan language family. In M. S.Edmonson (ed.), Meaning in Mayan languages, 23–49. The Hague: Mouton.10.1515/9783110869675.23Search in Google Scholar
Enfield, Nick. (ed.) 2002. Ethnosyntax. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Faudree, Paja.2012. Music, language, and texts: Sound and semiotic ethnography. Annual Review of Anthropology41. 519–536.Search in Google Scholar
Feld, Steven.1992. Sound and sentiment, 2nd edn. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.Search in Google Scholar
Feld, Steven.1996. Waterfalls of song. In StevenFeld & KeithBasso (eds.), Senses of place, 91–135. Santa Fe: School of American Research.Search in Google Scholar
Feld, Steven, AaronFox, ThomasPorcello & DavidSamuels.2004. Vocal anthropology: From the music of language to the language of sound. In AlessandroDuranti (ed.), A companion to linguistic anthropology, 321–345. Malden, MA: Blackwell.10.1002/9780470996522.ch14Search in Google Scholar
Firth, J. R.1930. Speech. London: Benn’s Sixpenny Library.Search in Google Scholar
Friedrich, Paul.1979. Language, context, and the imagination. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Friedrich, Paul.1996. The culture in poetry and the poetry in culture. In DanielValentine & JeffreyPeck (eds.), Culture/contexture, 37–57. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.10.1525/9780520323698-003Search in Google Scholar
Friedrich, Paul.2006. Maximizing ethnopoetics: Fine-tuning anthropological experience. In ChristineJourdan & KevinTuite (eds.), Language, culture, and society, 207–228. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511616792.011Search in Google Scholar
Friedrich, Paul.2009. Beyond the unsaid: Transcending language through language. In IvoStrecker & StephenTyler (eds.), Culture+rhetoric, 211–220. New York: Berghahn.10.1515/9781845459291-016Search in Google Scholar
Gell, Alfred.1995. The language of the forest: Landscape and phonological iconism in Umeda. In EricHirsch & MichaelO’Hanlon (eds.), The anthropology of landscape. 232–254.Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Gumperz, John & StephenLevinson. (eds.) 1996. Rethinking linguistic relativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Haas, Mary.1951. Interlingual word taboos. American Anthropologist53. 338–344.10.1525/aa.1951.53.3.02a00030Search in Google Scholar
Harkness, Nicholas.2011. Culture and interdiscursivity in Korean fricative voice gestures. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology21(1). 99–123.10.1111/j.1548-1395.2011.01084.xSearch in Google Scholar
Heller-Roazen, Daniel.2013. Dark tongues: The art of rogues and riddlers. Brooklyn: Zone.Search in Google Scholar
Hill, Jane.1993. Structure and practice in language shift. In KennethHyltenstam & ÅkeViberg (eds.), Progression and regression in language: Sociocultural, neuropsychological, and linguistic perspectives, 68–93. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Hill, Jane.2008. The everyday language of white racism. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.10.1002/9781444304732Search in Google Scholar
Hill, Jane & OfeliaZepeda.1999. Language, gender, and biology: Pulmonic ingressive airstream in women’s speech in Tohono O’odham. Southwest Journal of Linguistics18(1).15–41.Search in Google Scholar
Hoijer, Harry.1945. The Apachean verb I. International Journal of American Linguistics11. 193–203.10.1086/463871Search in Google Scholar
Hoijer, Harry.1951. Cultural implications of some Navaho linguistic categories. Language27. 111–120.10.2307/410424Search in Google Scholar
Hoijer, Harry.1954. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. In HarryHoijer (ed.), Language in culture (Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association 79), 92–105. Chicago: Chicago University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Hopper, Paul.1996. Some recent trends in grammaticalization. Annual Review of Anthropology25. 217–236.10.1146/annurev.anthro.25.1.217Search in Google Scholar
Hymes, Dell.1960. Phonological aspects of style: Some English sonnets. In ThomasSebeok (ed.), Style in language, 107–131. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Hymes, Dell.1979. How to talk like a bear in Takelma. International Journal of American Linguistics45(2). 101–106.10.1086/465581Search in Google Scholar
Hymes, Dell.2003. Now I know only so far: Essays in ethnopoetics. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Search in Google Scholar
Jakobson, Roman.1960. Concluding statement: Linguistics and poetics. In ThomasSebeok (ed.), Style in language, 350–373. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Jim, R.1995. saad. Princeton collections of Western Americana. Lenape Yaa Deez’á [Princeton, NJ]: Ti’oh Nilnééh.Search in Google Scholar
Lamphere, Louise.1977. To run after them: Cultural and social bases of cooperation in Navajo community. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.Search in Google Scholar
Leavitt, John.2006. Thick translation: Three soundings. In CatherineO’ Neil, MaryScoggin & KevinTuite (eds.), Language, culture, and the individual, 79–108. Meunchen: Lincom.Search in Google Scholar
Leavitt, John.2011. Linguistic relativities: Language diversity and modern thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511975059Search in Google Scholar
Lucy, John.1992a. Language diversity and thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Lucy, John.1992b. Grammatical categories and cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511620713Search in Google Scholar
Mannheim, Bruce.1988. The sound must seem an echo to the sense: Some cultural determinants of language change in Southern Peruvian Quechua. Michigan Discussions in Anthropology8. 175–191.Search in Google Scholar
Marx, Karl.2000. Karl Marx: Selected writings, DavidMcLellan (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
McAllester, David.1954. Enemy way music: A study of social and esthetic values as seen in Navajo music. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University 41(3). Cambridge: Peabody Museum.Search in Google Scholar
Meek, Barbra.2010. We are our language: An ethnography of language revitalization in a northern Athabaskan community. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.Search in Google Scholar
Mitchell, Blackhorse & Anthony K.Webster.2011. “We don’t know what we become”: Navajo ethnopoetics and an expressive feature in a poem by Rex Lee Jim. Anthropological Linguistics53(3). 259–286.10.1353/anl.2011.0015Search in Google Scholar
Nuckolls, Janis.1996. Sounds like life: Sound symbolic grammar, performance and cognition in Pastaza Quechua. London: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
O’Neill, Sean.2008. Cultural contact and linguistic relativity among the Indians of northwestern California. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.Search in Google Scholar
Peterson, Leighton C. & Anthony K.Webster.. 2013. Speech play and language ideologies in Navajo terminology development. Pragmatics23(1). 93–116.10.1075/prag.23.1.05petSearch in Google Scholar
Pinker, Stephen.1994. The language instinct. New York: Harper.10.1037/e412952005-009Search in Google Scholar
Reichard, Gladys.1948. The significance of aspiration in Navaho. International Journal of American Linguistics14. 15–19.10.1086/463972Search in Google Scholar
Reichard, Gladys.1951. Navaho grammar. New York: J. J. Augustin.Search in Google Scholar
Reichard, Gladys.1963. Navaho religion: A study of symbolism, 2nd edn. New York: Bollingen FoundationSearch in Google Scholar
Rumsey, Alan.2001. Tom Yaya Kange: A metrical narrative genre from the New Guinea highlands. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology11(2). 193–239.10.1525/jlin.2001.11.2.193Search in Google Scholar
Rushforth, Scott & JamesChisholm.1991. Cultural persistence. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.Search in Google Scholar
Samuels, David.2001. Indeterminacy and history in Britton Goode’s Western Apache placenames. American Ethnologist28(2). 277–302.10.1525/ae.2001.28.2.277Search in Google Scholar
Samuels, David.2004a. Putting a song on top of it. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.Search in Google Scholar
Samuels, David.2004b. Language, meaning, modernity, and doowop. Semiotica149(1/4). 297–323.Search in Google Scholar
Samuels, David, LouiseMeintjes, AnaMaria Ocha & ThomasPorcello. 2010. Soundscapes: Toward a sounded anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology39. 329–345.10.1146/annurev-anthro-022510-132230Search in Google Scholar
Sapir, Edward.1915. Abnormal types of speech in Nootka. Canada, Geological Survey, Memoir 62, Anthropological Series No. 5. Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau.10.4095/103492Search in Google Scholar
Sapir, Edward.1921. Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace.Search in Google Scholar
Sapir, Edward.1929a. The status of linguistics as a science. Language5(4). 207–214.10.2307/409588Search in Google Scholar
Sapir, Edward.1929b. A study in phonetic symbolism. Journal of Experimental Psychology12. 225–239.10.1037/h0070931Search in Google Scholar
Sapir, Edward.1985. Selected writings in language, culture, and personality, David G.Mandelbaum (ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Search in Google Scholar
Sherzer, Joel.1987. A discourse-centered approach to language and culture. American Anthropologist89. 295–309.10.1525/aa.1987.89.2.02a00010Search in Google Scholar
Sicoli, Mark.2010. Shifting voices with participant roles: Voice qualities and speech registers in Mesoamerica. Language in Society39(4). 521–553.10.1017/S0047404510000436Search in Google Scholar
Sidnell, Jack & NickEnfield.2012. Language diversity and social action: A third locus of linguistic relativity. Current Anthropology53(3). 302–333.10.1086/665697Search in Google Scholar
Silverstein, Michael.1979. Language structure and linguistic ideology. In PaulClyne, WilliamHanks & CarolHofbauer (eds.), The elements, 193–247. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.Search in Google Scholar
Stoller, Paul.1989. The taste of ethnographic things: The senses in anthropology. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.10.9783/9780812203141Search in Google Scholar
Stross, Brian.2013. Falsetto voice and observational logic: Motivated meanings. Language in Society42(2). 139–162.10.1017/S004740451300002XSearch in Google Scholar
Tapahonso, Luci.2008. A radiant curve. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.Search in Google Scholar
Webster, Anthony.2006. The mouse that sucked: On “translating” a Navajo poem. Studies in American Indian Literature18(1). 37–49.10.1353/ail.2006.0018Search in Google Scholar
Webster, Anthony.2009. Explorations in Navajo poetry and poetics. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Search in Google Scholar
Webster, Anthony.2010a. On intimate grammars, with examples from Navajo English, Navlish, and Navajo. Journal of Anthropological Research66(2). 187–208.10.3998/jar.0521004.0066.202Search in Google Scholar
Webster, Anthony.2010b. Imagining Navajo in the boarding school: Laura Tohe’s No Parole Today and the intimacy of language ideologies. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology20(1). 39–62.10.1111/j.1548-1395.2010.01047.xSearch in Google Scholar
Webster, Anthony.2012. “To give an imagination to the listener”: Replicating proper ways of speaking in and through contemporary Navajo poetry. In PaulKroskrity (ed.), Telling stories in the face of danger: Language renewal in Native American communities, 205–227. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.Search in Google Scholar
Webster, Anthony.2013. “The validity of Navajo is in its sounds”: On Hymes, Navajo poetry, punning, and the recognition of voice. Journal of Folklore Research50(1–3). 117–144.Search in Google Scholar
Webster, Anthony.2015. Intimate Grammars: An Ethnography of Navajo Poetry. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.10.2307/j.ctv1jf2ck1Search in Google Scholar
Whorf, Benjamin.1956. Language, thought, and reality, JohnCarroll (ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Williams, Raymond.1977. Marxism and literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Witherspoon, Gary.1977. Language and art in the Navajo universe. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.10.3998/mpub.9705Search in Google Scholar
Woodbury, Anthony.1987. Meaningful phonological processes: A consideration of central Alaskan Yupik Eskimo prosody. Language63(4). 685–740.10.2307/415716Search in Google Scholar
Woodbury, Anthony.1993. A defense of the proposition, “When a language dies a culture dies”. Texas Linguistic Forum33. 101–129.Search in Google Scholar
Woodbury, Anthony.1998. Documenting rhetorical, aesthetic, and expressive loss in language shift. In LenoreGrenoble & LindsayWhaley (eds.), Endangered languages, 234–258. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139166959.011Search in Google Scholar
Woolard, Kathryn.1998. Simultaneity and bivalency as strategies in bilingualism. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology8(1). 3–29.10.1525/jlin.1998.8.1.3Search in Google Scholar
Wright, James.1986. The music of poetry. American Poetry Review15(2). 43–47.Search in Google Scholar
Young, Robert & WilliamMorgan.1987. The Navajo language. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Search in Google Scholar
Young, Robert & WilliamMorgan.1992. Analytical lexicon of Navajo, with the assistance of Sally Midgette. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Search in Google Scholar
©2015 by De Gruyter Mouton
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Sports utility semiotics: A semantic differential study of symbolic potential in automobile design
- Making meaning in women’s spiritual autobiography: Language, materiality, and agency in colonial New Granada
- What is the proper characterization of the alphabet? VII: Sleight of hand
- Towards a semiotics of multilingualism
- In the arena: Communication between animals and Christians in damnatio ad bestias
- Dire l’indicible et décrire l’indescriptible: Ressources imagières et linguistiques des poilus
- Mathematics and Peirce’s semiotic
- Icarus ignored: Riffaterre and Eagleton on Auden’s Musée des Beaux Arts
- The “monster” of Seymour Avenue: Internet crime news and Gothic reportage in the case of Ariel Castro
- Kenneth L. Pike and science fiction
- Environmental communications: The reader’s perspective
- A Peircean typology of cultural prime symbols: Culture as category
- The poetry of sound and the sound of poetry: Navajo poetry, phonological iconicity, and linguistic relativity
- The language of fashion in postmodern society: A social semiotic perspective
- From Saussure to sociology and back to linguistics: Niklas Luhmann’s reception of signifiant/signifié and langue/parole as the basis for a model of language change
- The machine or the garden: Semiotics and the American yard
- Photogénie as “the Other” of the semiotics of cinema: On Yuri Lotman’s concept of “the mythological”
- Who said it? Voices in news translation, from a semiotic perspective
- Why semiotics, why poetry?
- How brands (don’t) do things: Corporate branding as practices of imagining “commens”
- Film space as mental space
- Netizen communicology: China daily and the Internet construction of group culture
- Questions toward a Peircean phenomenological description of association
- Colonial bodies: Slavery, wage-slavery, and the representation of race
- Discourse analysis with Peirce? Making sense of discursive regularities: The case of online university prospectuses
- Heidegger and the signs of history
- To be continued: meaning-making in serialized manga as functional-multimodal narrative
- Empiricism within the limits of postmodernism alone: On the emergence of the logically real within the multi-perspectival field
- Propaganda mala fide: Towards a comparative semiotics of violent religious persuasion
- Review article
- Peircean visual semiotics: Potentials to be explored
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Sports utility semiotics: A semantic differential study of symbolic potential in automobile design
- Making meaning in women’s spiritual autobiography: Language, materiality, and agency in colonial New Granada
- What is the proper characterization of the alphabet? VII: Sleight of hand
- Towards a semiotics of multilingualism
- In the arena: Communication between animals and Christians in damnatio ad bestias
- Dire l’indicible et décrire l’indescriptible: Ressources imagières et linguistiques des poilus
- Mathematics and Peirce’s semiotic
- Icarus ignored: Riffaterre and Eagleton on Auden’s Musée des Beaux Arts
- The “monster” of Seymour Avenue: Internet crime news and Gothic reportage in the case of Ariel Castro
- Kenneth L. Pike and science fiction
- Environmental communications: The reader’s perspective
- A Peircean typology of cultural prime symbols: Culture as category
- The poetry of sound and the sound of poetry: Navajo poetry, phonological iconicity, and linguistic relativity
- The language of fashion in postmodern society: A social semiotic perspective
- From Saussure to sociology and back to linguistics: Niklas Luhmann’s reception of signifiant/signifié and langue/parole as the basis for a model of language change
- The machine or the garden: Semiotics and the American yard
- Photogénie as “the Other” of the semiotics of cinema: On Yuri Lotman’s concept of “the mythological”
- Who said it? Voices in news translation, from a semiotic perspective
- Why semiotics, why poetry?
- How brands (don’t) do things: Corporate branding as practices of imagining “commens”
- Film space as mental space
- Netizen communicology: China daily and the Internet construction of group culture
- Questions toward a Peircean phenomenological description of association
- Colonial bodies: Slavery, wage-slavery, and the representation of race
- Discourse analysis with Peirce? Making sense of discursive regularities: The case of online university prospectuses
- Heidegger and the signs of history
- To be continued: meaning-making in serialized manga as functional-multimodal narrative
- Empiricism within the limits of postmodernism alone: On the emergence of the logically real within the multi-perspectival field
- Propaganda mala fide: Towards a comparative semiotics of violent religious persuasion
- Review article
- Peircean visual semiotics: Potentials to be explored