Plant Use and Cereal Cultivation Inferred from Integrated Archaeobotanical Analysis of an Ottoman Age Moat Sequence (Szigetvár, Hungary)

2.1 Location, Climate, and Natural Vegetation

Szigetvár is located in SW Hungary (Figure 1), in Baranya county, 33 km from Pécs and 40 from Kaposvár. The coordinates of the study site are 46°07′92″N and 17°84′58″E, 113 m a.s.l. The climate of the site is moderately warm and moderately dry (Figure 4). Continental and sub-Mediterranean climates characterize the site with warmer winters. According to the data of the nearest climate station (Pécs), its annual average temperature is 15.4°C, and its precipitation is 624 mm. The most important potential forest communities of the Somogyi flora are alder-ash (Alneto–Fraxinetum pannonicae) groves, oak–ash–elm gallery forest (Querco–Ulmetum), silver lime–turkey oak (Tilio argenteae–Quercetum cerris), hornbeam-sessile oak (Querco petraeae–Carpinetum praeillyricum), and beech forest (Vicio oroboidi-Fagetum; Marosi & Somogyi, 1990).

2.2 Sampling, Carpological, and Anthracological Analyses

Samples were taken at every 15 cm in a column for the archaeobotanical analysis. A total of 14 samples of ca. 30 L (per sample) were taken and wet-sieved to retrieve organic remains suitable for paleoecological studies. The archaeobotanical material was isolated in standard flotation equipment (Weiss & Kislev, 2004) in a laboratory, to avoid recent contamination. A sieve with 0.4 mm mesh was used to catch light fractions such as smaller seeds (e.g. poppy seed; Figueiral, Bouby, Buffat, Petitot, & Terral, 2010). Charcoals larger than 4 mm in size were counted (Asouti, 2003; Asouti & Austin, 2005; Chabal, Fabre, Terral, & Théry-Parisot, 1999; Keepax, 1988). We used identification atlases, professional publications (Cappers, 2006; Jacomet & Kreuz 1999; Jacomet, 2006; Nixon, Murray, & Fuller, 2011), and our recent comparative material for the identification of thousands of carpological remains (seeds/fruits). The charred wood remains were analysed by an optical microscope at 100, 200, and 500 × magnifications. Wood anatomical identification publication (Schweingruber, 1990) was used, as well as our own subfossil and fossil reference collection (Náfrádi, 2015) for the identification.

3.1 Anthracology

During the flotation to recover the macrobotanical material, a high number (5,445 pcs) of charred wood fragments were found in the moat of the tomb. Some of the remains were poorly preserved due to overburning, and thus could not be identified to genus level. The results of the anthracological analysis are detailed in Table 2. Oak (Quercus sp.), maple (Acer sp.), alder (Alnus sp.), and poplar/willow (Populus/Salix sp.) genera were identified. In the charred charcoal material, coniferous fragments were identified, and a more precise identification was not possible due to overburning.

3.2 Carpology

As a result of the carpological analysis, 77 taxa of 14 samples were found that cover 32,557 remains of fragments (Tables 3–5). In the individual samples and the complex carpological assemblage, the diaspora of European black elderberry (Sambucus nigra [23,678 remains]), European dwarf elder (Sambucus ebulus [4,610 remains]), and greater celandine (Chelidonium majus [2,949 remains]) dominated; the number of these species (31,237) accounted for the ratio of 95.94% of the findings. Therefore, during quantitative evaluation, the number of these species was not considered, and we took the ratio of these three species to zero when assessing the dominance of each group/taxa, for better perspicuity. So the indicator elements with a lower ratio and their quantitative change became more evident in the examined profile.

The carpological findings were diverse regarding charring and preservation (Tables 3–5). The wet condition of the moat helped preserving findings, half of the remains were carbonized, but still identifiable. The moat was periodically or permanently filled with water which preserved the seeds. As uncharred remains were also found in very deep layers, we do not consider it to be recent contamination.

In Tables 3–5, the preservation of certain carpological species and if they are carbonized or not are marked as +/+; +/−;−/+;−/− (+/+: charred and well preserved; −/+: non-charred and well preserved; +/−: charred and poorly preserved; −/−: non-charred and poorly preserved). In most cases, the species were either only carbonized or not carbonized in each sample. In general, the cultivated plants and their weeds were carbonized. Where a species was both carbonized and not carbonized, we indicated this by adding letter C (carbonized) in the sample depth, e.g. common grapevine (Vitis sp.) between 145 and 160 cm had 1 seed that was carbonized (1 C). However, where a given depth (sample) had a mixture of carbonized and not carbonized, we left the number of seeds and indicated next to it how many of these were carbonized (e.g. common chickweed [Stellaria media] 11 (6 C) = 6 out of 11 seeds were carbonized).

4.1 Results in the Light of Erosion-Accumulation Events

Gulyás et al. (2022) marked two erosion-accumulation events according to grain size, geochemical analysis, and magnetic susceptibility data. These two intervals between 110–130 and 170–180 cm indicate an eroded soil covering the surrounding areas. These two zones are identified as erosion-accumulation events I (between 190 and 160 cm) and II (between 130 and 50 cm; Figure 5). Furthermore, the second event can be subdivided into two more zones, between 130 and 100 cm and between 100 and 50 cm (Gulyás et al., 2022).

Figure 4

Walter–Lieth climate diagram based on the data of Pécs climate station in the same microlimatic position as Szigetvár – Turbék Vineyard Hill site 1. Monthly average temperature 2. Monthly averages (red dots) of the hottest months (multi-year average) 3. Monthly averages (blue dots) of the coldest months (multi-year average) 4. Monthly average precipitation 5. Precipitation maximum at the beginning of summer 6. Secondary autumn precipitation maximum (sub-Mediterranean climatic effect).

Figure 5 clearly shows the changes in the number of cereals, legumes, fruits, near-natural vegetation, weeds, greater celandine (Chelidonium majus), European dwarf elderberry (Sambucus ebulus), European black elderberry (Sambucus nigra), and charred wood remains in the profile from the bottom up. Even though only small amounts of remains were found for some plant groups, the curves show good correspondence. The quantitative variation of cereals is the opposite of that of natural vegetation. The reduction in the proportion of natural vegetation coincided with the first stage of erosion when Hungarian troops destroyed the memorial site during the winter campaign of 1664. Likewise, the peak in the amount of charcoal can be dated to this period. Taking into account geochemical analyses, including potassium variations (Gulyás et al., 2022), the charcoal peaks follow the potassium peaks exactly, confirming the presence of burning horizons (Figure 5). Probably the burning of the buildings during the re-occupation of the area in the second half of the seventeenth century contributed to the poor preservation of the remains, as the Christian troops ransacked the memorial site and partially destroyed it, but did not take the castle of Szigetvár (Gulyás et al., 2022).

Figure 5

Main archaeobotanical groups and their number through the profile (*the number of Sambucus nigra [23,678 pieces], Sambucus ebulus [4,610 pieces], Chelidonium majus [2,949 pieces] remains were not taken into account in the calculation of dominance).

The highest number of cereals appeared during the first erosion-accumulation event. This probably suggests that the memorial place was cleaned up after the Hungarian troops had ransacked it, meaning that these cereal grains were re-accumulated multiple times before being thrown into the moat surrounding the memorial site. The spread of near-natural vegetation elements and that of greater celandine (Chelidonium majus), European dwarf elderberry (Sambucus ebulus), and European black elderberry (Sambucus nigra) is contrasting. The seeds of grape vine appeared after the first attempt of the Hungarian troops to re-occupy the area; however, only sporadic grape seeds were found, but they are nevertheless indicative. There are written historical records about the presence of vineyards on the site from the second half of the sixteenth century (Table 1, sources 3 and 5) that support grape production and wine consumption. The Ottoman Empire and the spreading Islamic customs, which prohibit the consumption of wine according to the Qur’an, did not restrict (Fodor, 1998) the development of viticulture in the conquered territories and wine consumption for Christian communities was allowed if they paid wine tax (Égető, 1993; Hegyi, 1976; Káldy-Nagy, 1985). This later, together with the wine trade tax, could have been a very significant amount based on written sources of taxation (Fekete, 1993; Pákay, 1984; Szakály, 1981) and, of course, Ottoman communities also paid tax for growing grapes (Káldy-Nagy, 1985). Tax sheets (Fekete, 1993; Pákay, 1984; Szakály, 1981) and written sources (Table 1) indicate that well-developed grape production subsisted despite wars (Andrásfalvy, 1961).

4.2 Evaluation of Chared Wood Remains

One of the prominent issues of our archaeobotanical analyses is how charred wood remains got into the moat of the tomb. On the one hand, the wood material may have derived from the firewood of the tomb’s heating system and come from household waste from the people living in the pilgrim town. On the other hand, the destruction and burning of the tomb in 1664 and in 1689/90 (Gulyás et al., 2022) may also have contributed to the accumulation and overburning of charred material.

The anthracological data indicate that non-native, planted coniferous trees might have existed in the vicinity of the tomb. These identified taxa have completely different properties. Oak and maple trees are hardwoods that possibly were used as structural elements such as columns or beams. Both taxa were used as beams, columns, furniture, monuments, entrances, or doors and as firewood (Hæggström, 1992; Rinaldi, Mazzanti, & Bosi, 2013). Contrarily, alder and poplar/willow trees are softwoods and are mainly used for making wattle fences, partitioning rooms, the construction of the walls of adobe houses and wells (Cywa, 2018; Murray, Murray, & Lindsay, 2009; Mighall et al., 2018).

Oak remains may have derived from the wood material of the bridge over the moat that was marked in the historical map from 1664 (Figure 2) as well. It is well known that Ottoman bridges were predominantly made of oak in the Carpathian basin (Papp & Gryneus, 2011). Additionally, oak utilization as construction wood (Papp & Gryneus, 2011) in Ottoman fortresses, baths, and usually everywhere in architecture was widespread as it can be used in many ways. Maple was only secondary compared to oak and could be used on surfaces as a wainscot wood (Cywa, 2018; Deforce, 2017) during the construction of the tomb, and in baths (Yeşilada et al., 1999). Signs of abrasion indicating filling up and re-accumulation could not be detected on charcoal samples. Coniferous charcoals were overburnt thus we were not able to identify them at a species level. However, the presence of spruce needles in the archaeobotanical assemblage might support their presence as ornamental trees in the monastery garden. Since the local ecological conditions of the study area differ from the natural needs of spruce and birch, these species could have been planted around the tomb or transported from a further site.

4.3 Cereal Cultivation in the Seventeenth Century

Besides charred wood remains a significant number (32,557 remains) of other macrobotanical remains were found, covering 77 taxa, so a detailed carpological analysis was performed.

A change in sustenance cannot be ruled out either, since as a result of the war, food production had to change towards the more mobile, extensive animal husbandry that required less human work, from the second half of the sixteenth century (Bartosiewicz, 1995). The dynamic growth of animal husbandry may also have been amplified by trade, so the population growth and urbanization in Italy, Germany, the Czech Republic, and Austria promoted the increase of living animal trade (Bartosiewicz, 1995).

The exposure of the site, its loess bedrock, the anthroposol soil (Capra, Ganga, Grilli, Vacca, & Buondonno, 2015) that formed from brown forest soil due to human impact (fertilization, agriculture), and the microclimatic conditions of the area (Figure 2) enabled diverse crop production even during the colder and wetter climatic period of the Little Ice Age in the seventeenth century. Barley (Hordeum sp.) is one of the oldest crops; it has been grown since the Neolithic in the Carpathian Basin (Gyulai, 2010). It has been used for making porridge, bread, beer, and as animal forage, nowadays as well (Sullivan, Arendt, & Gallagher, 2013). The significance of rye (Secale cereale) increased during the medieval period in the Carpathian basin (Gyulai, 2010). It was sewn together with wheat (Cossani, Savin, & Slafer, 2007). Rye spikes, rising above wheat, were pinched. In the case of a whole field when rye grew above the wheat, it was cut to make the wheat ripe. Rye is less demanding than wheat in terms of soil and climatic conditions (Nesbitt & Samuel, 1998). The utilization of rye is similar to wheat; it is used as bread flour and thatching roofs (de Moulins, 2007). Written historical records (Table 1) also mention ploughed lands already from the second half of the sixteenth century.

Cereal cultivation was widespread in the Carpathian Basin in the seventeenth century (Figure 6); at the same time, its significance decreased considerably compared to the sixteenth century. On the one hand, the whole basin became a war zone (Sümegi et al., 2016), which resulted in a population decrease, so the production area of cereals may have decreased as well.

Figure 6

Map of archaeobotanical finds of cereals in the Carpathian Basin during the seventeenth century. 1. Szentgotthárdi fort – Ilon, Grynaeus, & Torma, 2007, Gyulai, 2010. 2. Kőszegi fort – Hartyányi et al., 1967/1968, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 3. Pápa fort – Torma, 1996b, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 4. Tata fort – Hartyányi et al., 1967/1968, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 5. Esztergomi fort – Hartyányi et al., 1967/1968, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 6. Vác town (trade centre) – Hartyányi et al., 1967/1968, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001. 7. Szécsény fort – Torma, 1996a. 8. Sárospataki fort – Gyulai, Emődi, Mravcsik, & Pósa, 2013. 9. Debrecen town – Hartyányi et al., 1967/1968, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 10. Szolnoki fort – Hartyányi & Patay, 1970, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 11. Budapest – 1. osman site – Hartyányi & Patay, 1970, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 12. Budapest – 2. osman (Rácfürdő) – Hartyányi & Patay, 1970, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 13. Székesfehérvár – Hartyányi et al., 1967/1968, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 14. Dunaföldvári vár – Hartyányi & Patay, 1970, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 15. Szigetvár – Turbék Alsó Szőlőhegy site (in this manuscript). 16. Kaposvár – Hartyányi et al., 1967/1968, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 17. Pogányszentpéter (Christian monastery – sixteenth century, it was destroyed between 1526 and 1566) – Füzes, 1972, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. 18. Sümeg – Sarvaly village (sixteenth century, it was destroyed between in 1536) – Skoflek, 1985, Torma, 1996a, Gyulai, 2001, 2010. Written data: Lászlófalvi Velics & Kammerer, 1886, 1890, Szilágyi, 1895, Imreh, 1999, Rácz, 2020.

Military stockpiles were very important regarding grain sustenance due to constant wars, for the continuous provision of military supplies in the Carpathian Basin (Hartyányi & Patay, 1970). Ottoman travellers also referred to military and civilian warehouses in the seventeenth century (Fodor, 2020). Historical notes of military warehouses provide information about cereal composition collected in the form of taxation. At the same time, the archaeobotanical analysis of military warehouse finds indicates some differences compared to our archaeobotanical results (Hartyányi & Patay, 1970).

Figure 6 shows that even the smaller settlements in the sixteenth century had more substantial grain reserves and, on this basis, probably had a larger population. The smaller castles occupied by Christians and Ottomans (Szentgothárd, Kőszeg, Pápa, Tata, Esztergom, and Szécsény) had approximately the same, subordinate quantities of cereals, indicating that these castles may have had approximately insignificant population and military. The excavated türbe also falls into this category. However, the türbe was a religious centre (Fodor, 2020). At the same time, we have to note that the fossilization of the archaeobotanical material also influenced the preservation of the charred remains. The coincidental, subordinate cereal quantity of the six smaller-sized castles cannot be a coincidence – especially when compared to the quantity of excavated cereals from larger Ottoman castles (Kaposvár, Székesfehérvár, and Szolnok) or a principality centre (Sárospatak), or a larger commercial centre (Vác). This is particularly striking when compared with the fortress of Dunaföldvár which was occupied by Ottoman troops. It was built along the Danube River earlier which is the main staging area for the Ottoman armies. In the Dunaföldvár fortress, a large quantity of cereals was stored in military warehouses, far in excess of the number of soldiers stationed in the fortress, precisely for the marching armies (Gyulai, 2001, 2010; Hartyányi, Nováki, & Patay, 1967/1968).

As described earlier, the comparison of the archaeobotanical material shows that the quantity of cereals of the türbe was just as subordinate as that of the smaller castles (Szentgothárd, Kőszeg, Pápa, Tata, Esztergom, and Szécsény; Figure 6). This allows us to reconstruct a minimal garrison and population. However, the grain reserves of the major settlements and fortresses (Székesfehérvár and Szolnok) suggest a larger population in the seventeenth century. Based on this we might infer that the population of the smaller settlements – the peripheral ones – declined in the seventeenth century. At the same time, the population of the larger settlements increased which might be indicated in the larger number of cereals in the archaeobotanical material. This suggests that the population may have been resettled.

Hartyányi and Patay (1970) published the Ottoman archaeobotanical material of a presumably baking house with and oven, as well as grinding stones from Dunaföldvár. An iron mortar and a charred, wooden mortar were also discovered in the ruins of the baking house. Grain remains were found on the surface of the mortar. The recovered material was dominated by cereals, mainly wheat and rye. In smaller quantities, multi-row barley (Hordeum vulgare [three grains]), and double-row barley (Hordeum distichon [five grains]) were also recovered from the archaeobotanical assemblage. Based on the identical number of common wheat (Triticum aestivum/nudum/turgidum) and rye (Secale cereale), the double sowing of wheat and rye emerged. The reason for the difference in the composition of the cereals is the special importance of the türbe. As it was a religious centre, important personalities, including the leaders of the imperial armies, visited it (Fodor, 2020), while mainly conscript soldiers lived in the Dunaföldvár fortress. The finds from the türbe and Dunaföldvár suggest that the Ottoman military aristocracy consumed a different composition of food, including bread, then the common soldiers.

There could be several reasons for the dominance of barley (Hordeum sp.) in the archaeobotanical assemblage of the türbe. On the one hand, there was the already mentioned imperial – religious reason (Fodor, 2020); on the other hand, locally grown crops might be used, and it cannot be excluded that artificial selection among the cereals was already established at sowing time, compensating for the effect of the climatic change (regionally cooler and wetter climate in the seventeenth century, Rácz, 2020). Thus, rye (Secale sp.) and barley (Hordeum sp.) dominated. At the same time, barley (Hordeum sp.) also dominated in the grains recovered from Esztergom castle (Gyulai, 2001, 2010; Hartyányi et al., 1967/1968; Torma, 1996a), alongside the absolute dominance of millet, which is essential for feeding the common soldiers and less sensitive to growing conditions. A total of 12 remains of common millet (Panicum miliaceum) were found in the excavated section of the moat in Szigetvár. This is probably related to the prominent position of the türbe, as official, prominent Ottoman personalities have not been served millet dishes up, which were probably consumed by the permanent military guards of the türbe and/or the staff serving in the türbe.

4.4 Plant Use in the Vicinity of the Türbe

The high species and the individual number of certain plant species deriving from crops, weeds, and the near-natural vegetation may provide significant information about the former agricultural activities, and habitats surrounding the settlement. Based on the ecological needs of weeds, we can separate different floral categories (Behre, 1988), which provide information on habitat types (Table 6).

Besides the remains of cereals, the seeds of opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), lentil (Lens culinaris), pea (Pisum sativum), black mustard (Brassica nigra), flax (Linum usitatissimum), and parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) appeared as well, indicating horticulture (Behre, 1988; Jacomet & Kreuz, 1999; Jacomet, 2006). Legumes have been cultivated since the Neolithic in the Carpathian Basin (Gyulai, 2010), and their presence supposes an advanced farming activity and indicates the existence of a well-developed horticulture (Galluzzi, Eyzaguirre, & Negri, 2010). Parsnips could be consumed as roots and herbs (Asif, 2015; Leach, 1982).

Among fruits sweet cherry/sour cherry (Prunus avium/cerasus), plum (Prunus domestica), and walnut (Juglans regia) remain turned up in the moat of the tomb. Although walnut (Juglans regia) and hazelnut (Corylus avellana) grow in many forests of the Carpathian Basin and south-eastern Europe (Bottema, 2000; Pollegioni et al., 2017), they were already maintained and colonized in gardens in the late Medieval period and early modern ages (Islam, 2018).

Based on the historical records (Table 1) the production of cherry was likely in the vicinity of the tomb. Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), European blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), and hazelnut (Corylus avellana) grow in open woodlands, and forest edges (Table 6) and were present in different parts of Europe and the Carpathian basin in the seventeenth century (Gyulai, 2010; Torma, 2003; Sánchez-Pardo, Marron, & Țiplic, 2020).

In addition to crops, a significant number of weed plant remains occurred as well. Based on weeds indicating the cultivation of winter cereals, ploughed lands were created and cereals were cultivated in the vicinity of the tomb and the pilgrim town. Weeds indicating ruderal areas appeared as well, such as field brome (Bromus arvensis), rye brome (Bromus secalinus), nodding thistle (Carduus nutans), hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), cleavers (Galium aparine) and red horned poppy (Glaucium corniculatum; Ujvári, 1957). All of the cereal weeds excavated in the moat of the tomb are considered obligatory weeds (Scholz, 1996). Among cereal weeds, the presence of corn-cockle is of great importance (Humphry, Mortimer, & Marrs, 2001; Spahillari, Hammer, Gladis, & Diederichsen, 1999; Rösch et al., 2014), which fully adapted to cereals (Radosevich, Holt, & Ghersa, 1997). Its saponin content (Holzner, 1982) can cause severe poisoning (Hanley & Whiting, 2005) if it gets into the flour, so it had to be separated from cereal grains.

In addition to cereal weeds, weed seeds of spring-sowing plants (Colledge et al., 2004; Hyvönen, Ketoja, & Salonen, 2003; Ujvári, 1957) appeared as well, such as darnel (Lolium temulentum) and corn spurry (Spergula arvensis; Behre, 2008; Pelling et al., 2015). At the same time, darnel (Lolium temulentum) appeared in rye, wheat, and flax fields in the Carpathian Basin, before mechanization and the use of chemical pesticides. The same characterizes corn spurry (Spergula arvensis); it appears together with spring cereals (Chamanabad, Ghorbani, Asghari, Tulikov, & Zargarzadeh, 2009; New, 1961).

Most summer weeds appear in ruderal and trampled areas as well, such as thorn apple (Datura stramonium), black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), and nettle-leaved goosefoot (Chenopodium murale; Kreuz, Colledge, & Conolly, 2007; Rösch, Fischer, & Märkle, 2005; Spengler, 2019; Ujvári, 1957). Moreover, some weeds exist in ploughed lands, such as maple-leaved goosefoot (Chenopodium hybridum), hooked bristlegrass (Setaria viridis/verticillata), yellow foxtail (Setaria glauca), and white goosefoot (Chenopodium album) The two latter grow in ruderal areas as well (Behre, 2008; Wallace & Charles, 2013). So, ploughed lands and ruderal areas cannot be distinguished based on weeds, as they occur in both areas of human impact (Lundkvist, 2009; Möhler, 2004). One of the decisive factors in the development of these weeds is their light demand (Möhler, 2004). They exist in habitats characterized by open vegetation and in areas of human impact to different degrees as well.

Datura stramonium is commonly known as thorn apple which originated in Latin America (Singh & Singh, 2013). It was probably introduced to the Carpathian Basin by the Ottoman people based on the data available up to the seventeenth century (Kubinyi, 1842). At the same time, the archaeobotanical analysis of the plant was first carried out in the Carpathian Basin by Ferenc Gyulai and Árpád Kenéz, who analysed more than 55,000 remains from seven sites (Gyulai & Kenéz, 2018). Sporadic remains from the Early Bronze Age (Bell Beaker Culture), late Iron Age (Celtic culture), and Migration period (Sarmatian culture) suggest that the plant grew in the Carpathian Basin long before the first American introductions. A great amount, about 55,000 seeds of thorn apple (Datura stramonium), was found in a sixteenth- to seventeenth-century room in the castle of Hollókő, among the ruins. This not only raises but also confirms its conscious use (Gyulai & Kenéz, 2018).

Black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) is a poisonous weed, all parts of the plant are toxic, especially its root and seed, but organic cultures and folk medicine used it in very small quantities, as a tranquilizer and painkiller, and in the case of rheumatism, spasm, and neural problems (Carter, 1996; Fatur, 2019, 2020; Fenwick & Omura, 2015; Gyulai & Kenéz, 2018; Long, Milburn, Bunting, & Tipping, 1999; Van den Berg, 2008; Van der Veen & Morales, 2015). Chenopodiaceae and Setaria taxa are also considered to be weeds nowadays but have been used by organic agriculture for feeding and grazing animals and as green manure. Thus, their appearance raises several land use possibilities in the study site, from horticulture to ploughed lands and trampled, ruderal areas (Bakels, 1999; Behre, 2008; Charles, Bogaard, Jones, Hodgson, & Halstead, 2002; Latalowa, Badura, & Jarosińska, 2003; Wallace & Charles, 2013). Regarding the number of weed seeds, the mass of seeds belongs to ruderal species indicating trampled areas, roads, and settlements (Lapteva & Korona, 2012; McPartland & Hegman, 2018), for example, motherwort (Leorunus cardiac), common knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare), and hawkweed oxtongue (Picris hieracioides).

The dominant species in the profile, greater celandine (Chelidonium majus), European dwarf elderberry (Sambucus ebulus), and European black elderberry (Sambucus nigra), of which thousands of remains were identified, prefer nutrient-rich, fresh habitats, such as the banks of the moat of the tomb. European black elderberry (Sambucus nigra) and greater celandine (Chelidonium majus) were gathered as well. In addition, greater celandine (Chelidonium majus) was a known herbal drug (Sárközi, Janicsak, Kursinszki, & Kery, 2006), while the fruit and flower of European black elderberry (Sambucus nigra) were consumed as herbal tea (Akbulut, Ercisli, & Tosun, 2009; Porter & Bode, 2017).

Several weed species refer to the presence of vineyards and orchards, such as the remains of hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), common purslane (Portulaca oleracea), common chickweed (Stellaria media), and dwarf mallow (Malva pusilla; Beneš et al., 2002; Poldini, Oriolo, & Mazzolini, 1998; Weiss & Kislev, 2004).

Among the archaeobotanical remains of near-natural vegetation elements, we can find plants that dominate in waterfront areas, floodplains, and wet ditches, such as common spikerush (Eleocharis palustris), true fox sedge (Carex vulpina), common club-rush (Schoenoplectus lacustris), European water-plantain (Alisma plantago aquatica), and blue sedge (Carex flacca). Several of these species exist in ruderal areas as well, for example, giant chickweed (Myosoton aquaticus) or small-flowered winter cress (Barbarea stricta; Hosch & Jacomet, 2001; Šoštarić & Küster, 2001).

The number of meadow species is low. This includes Carex distans (Distant sedge), which is a tolerant species to habitat and can be found in both floodplain vegetation and as a ruderal weed (Cappers, 1993; Nieuwhof, 2006; Święta-Musznicka & Latałowa, 2016). In addition, oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) and creeping buttercup (Ranunculus repens) exist in floodplain, ruderal, and inhabited areas as well (Gyulai, Hertelendi, & Szabó, 1992; Henriksen & Robinson, 1996; Latalowa et al., 2003; Sillasoo, 2006). These plants were able to survive in shallow and periodically drying waters, including swamps, and puddles, and as a result, it can be assumed that the moat was wet for at least a part of the year during the seventeenth century.

The remains of birch (Betula sp.) and spruce (Picea abies) may indicate the presence of planted and artificially maintained forest patches or groves, possibly rows of trees or scattered trees near the moat (Beck, Caudullo, de Rigo, & Tinner, 2016; Kovačić & Nikolić, 2005; Šímová et al., 2019; Wistuba, Malik, Gärtner, Kojs, & Owczarek, 2013). The presence of both species is not typical on south-facing slopes at low elevation, which is warmer during summer and is in contradiction to their ecological needs. Moreover, spruce favours altitudes of 800 m above sea level and exists on the northern hillsides in the Carpathian Basin (Beck et al., 2016; Latałowa & van der Knaap, 2006; Šímová et al., 2019). As a result, both plants were probably planted in the Szigetvár – Turbék Vineyard Hill site in the seventeenth century, and it cannot be ruled out that their presence may have been related to the function of the memorial place and the pilgrim town (Alavijeh, 2012). It is possible that coniferous charcoals that could not be identified to the genus level belong to the Picea genus as well.