Home Investigation of the hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of steel components during thin-film hot-dip galvanizing
Article Publicly Available

Investigation of the hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of steel components during thin-film hot-dip galvanizing

  • Thomas Pinger

    Thomas Pinger, born in 1976, studied civil engineering at the University of Kaiserslautern from 1996 to 2002. After working as a research assistant at the Steel Construction Institutes at the University of Kaiserslautern and at the RWTH Aachen University, where he also obtained his doctorate, he has been working for the ZINQ Group in Gelsenkirchen since 2008 and has been head of research and development there since 2013.

     EMAIL logo     , Jens Riedel

    Jens Riedel, born in 1966, studied material science at the Technical University Berlin from 1990 to 1995. He worked for many years as the head of the surface technology department at Weidmüller Interface GmbH and is now the general partner at iChemAnalytics GmbH. He actively contributes to furthering the understanding and development of surface technology as the vice chairman of the Committee >Chemical and Electrochemical Coatings < by the German Institute for Standardization. As an educator, he teaches a course on surface technology in the master’s program of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Applied Sciences Lemgo.

         , Axel Diehl

    Axel Diehl, born in 1969, studied mechanical engineering at the TU Darmstadt from 1989 to 1996. He then worked as a research assistant at the State Material Testing Institute and Institute of Materials Science at the TU Darmstadt, where he also obtained his doctorate. Afterward, he started working for Daimler in 2002, where he deals with the corrosion protection of aggregates, components and chassis parts.

         and Robert Mayrhofer

    Robert Mayrhofer, born in 1967, studied material science at the Montanuniversity of Leoben, Austria from 1987 to 1993. After five years in the RD welding department of the steel maker Voest Alpine Stahl Linz GmbH, Austria including two years at INPRO, Berlin as a project manager for innovative production systems in the automotive industry he changed 1999 to DaimlerChrysler, where he is responsible for corrosion testing.
Published/Copyright: April 21, 2022
Download Article (PDF)
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
Materials Testing
From the journal Materials Testing Volume 64 Issue 5

Abstract

With regard to the application of thin-film hot-dip galvanizing to a welded steel tube structure in vehicle construction, several test series were carried out to investigate the potential for hydrogen embrittlement caused by the pretreatment media used in the galvanizing process. Here, C-ring specimens were produced from the materials E355 and C75 in different tempering states, treated in a hydrochloric acid-based operational pickle, and then tested under constant strain rate or constant load. The results show that under the investigated pickling conditions, no hydrogen-induced embrittlement effect occurs up to a hardness of 470 HV in the case of material E355 and 500 HV in the case of material C75. Only in the case of 550 HV and 600 HV, both for C75, was a tendency to embrittlement observed; this effect was more pronounced after treatment with the freshly prepared pickle than in the operating pickles. The two test methods used showed consistent results.

Keywords: constant strain rate testing; constant load testing; hydrogen embrittlement; manufacturing process evaluation; material embrittlement index; thin-film hot-dip galvanizing

1 Introduction

Thin-film hot-dip galvanizing is a modern method for corrosion protection of steel components. Owing to its low layer thickness, which is associated with a low coating weight, combined with high protection performance, it is particularly suitable for vehicle construction and has been used in this field under the brand name microZINQ® for more than 15 years. These zinc–aluminum coatings are regulated according to the standards DIN 50997 [1] and ASTM 1072 [2], as well as in the factory standards of various OEMs. In the galvanizing process, prefabricated components made of steel or cast iron are immersed in a liquid-hot zinc–5% aluminum melt and thus provided with a metallic coating. Before the actual galvanizing step, the components undergo a wet chemical pretreatment for surface cleaning in the form of alkaline degreasing and, after intermediate rinsing steps, pickling in hydrochloric acid. In this step, as a result of the reaction of the acid with the iron oxides present on the steel surface, hydrogen is formed, which can be absorbed at the component surface and diffuse into the steel. Under critical conditions, this can lead to embrittlement of the material and cause damage to the components. The phenomenon of hydrogen assisted fracture of steel components due to manufacturing and fabrication processes (production-related hydrogen embrittlement occurs via internal hydrogen embrittlement) has long been known and studied in many ways [3], [4], [5], [6]. In the understanding and discussion of the hydrogen-induced embrittlement mechanism, the decohesion theory (hydrogen-induced reduction in cohesive strength (HEDE) leads to brittle fracture [6], [7], [8]) and hydrogen-induced material softening (hydrogen enhanced localized plasticity (HELP) leads to a ductile fracture [9, 10]) have been established.

With regard to the qualification and monitoring of manufacturing processes for applications, the introduction of DIN 50969 [11] established principles for avoiding hydrogen-related damage to components. This standard specifies that there is an increased susceptibility to hydrogen at a material strength above 1000 MPa. It should be noted that this applies to both high-strength steels with a corresponding nominal strength, as well as to mild (normal-strength) steels in the form of local hardening, for example, as a result of forming or welding processes. Various stress tests are described for the testing of components and manufacturing processes and the corresponding boundary conditions are specified [11]. In practice, however, these methods are sometimes difficult to implement and/or cannot be reliably interpreted. For example, testing at the component level can involve a very large effort in the case of larger test parts, in terms of both testing and measuring a statistically relevant number of samples. Static load tests are disadvantageous with regard to the interpretation of results, the component itself, and process control, as only the test criterion “failure yes/no” can be used after a specified test duration.

New technological advancements for the detection of hydrogen-induced material embrittlement during manufacturing processes and applications, as well as the possibilities of advanced evaluation and process monitoring techniques, provide a framework for the application of new test concepts in product development and operational manufacturing practice [12]. In the current study, the concrete implementation of such a concept was realized. The background to the study is the application of thin-film galvanizing to a frame structure manufactured from tube material of nominal grade E355 in a vehicle series. Local hardening, which is correlated with a strength above 1000 MPa and thus considered a critical threshold for hydrogen embrittlement, occurred as a result of welding during fabrication of the frame. Therefore, separate studies were required in accordance with the specifications of the OEM factory standard with regard to possible hydrogen embrittlement of the component due to the pretreatment media used during the galvanizing process [13]. To assess the production-related hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility and develop appropriate measures to ensure component safety, a test regime was implemented to account for variations in relevant parameters.

2 Experimental

2.1 General procedure

DIN 50969 [11] recommends a staggered procedure to avoid hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking in the components. The tests were divided into different categories, which are described in Table 1.

Table 1:

Test categories and application goals according to DIN 50969 [11].

Test category Application goal Description
K1 Component-related aptitude test Examination enabling direct conclusions to be drawn about a product part (component)
K2 Process release review Investigate and release an entire process, e.g., when introducing new processes or process changes
K3 Process and production monitoring Monitoring of single parameters of a process, e.g., the efficacy of pickling inhibitors

In the course of the test campaign for approval of the above-mentioned automotive frame structure, the examination was carried out according to test category K2, and several test series were set up. The design of the experiments was based on the following considerations, in accordance with the proposed procedure discussed in [11]:

  1. Inclusion of both the real material and a supercritical material,

  2. Variation of the material hardness for both materials to be tested,

  3. Use of C-shaped clamping bodies,

  4. Use of real process media for hydrogen loading,

  5. Variation of the test method.

Three series of experiments were conducted to assess the potential for hydrogen assisted fracture resulting from the manufacturing process:

  1. Constant strain rate (CSR) tests using operating pickling and C-ring samples made from material C75 with different tempering states.

  2. Constant load (CL) clamping tests using operating pickling and C-ring samples made of C75 with different tempering states.

  3. CSR tests using operating pickling and C-ring samples made from material E355 with different tempering states.

2.2 Materials and specimens

For all test series, C-ring test specimens were fabricated from the respective materials. For test Series 1 and 2, the test specimens were produced in the standard geometry specified in [11] with a diameter of 28 mm from the sheet metal material used. The geometry of these C-ring specimens and the stress state in the tests are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Specimen geometry in test series 1 and 2 and applied stress state [11].
Figure 1:

Specimen geometry in test series 1 and 2 and applied stress state [11].

Material C75 is a sheet metal material with thickness t = 1.5 mm. The relevant characteristics of the initial state are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2:

Mechanical properties and chemical composition of tested steel C75.

R p0.2 R m A Chemical composition (wt%)
(MPa) (MPa) (%) C Si Mn P S Al Ni Mo
393 565 26.4 0.748 0.197 0.668 0.014 0.002 0.01 0.016 0.002

The samples from the material E355 were made from the same material used in the real series component. The samples are welded, cold-drawn precision tubes according to DIN EN 10305-2 [14] with a nominal diameter of 45 mm and a wall thickness of 2.5 mm. Owing to these dimensions of the precision tubes, which differ from the standard geometry as given in Figure 1, the specimen geometry and the specimen suspension in the testing device had to be modified. The adjustments were made based on previous finite element method (FEM) analyses: This ensures that the generated stress-strain curve is analogous to that from test Series 1, this making the results of the two different materials comparable. Figure 2 shows the specimen geometry of test Series 3 in the loading device and simulated loading condition.

Figure 2: C-ring specimen of material E355, a) geometry and load suspension, b) simulated loading condition for test series 3.
Figure 2:

C-ring specimen of material E355, a) geometry and load suspension, b) simulated loading condition for test series 3.

The relevant characteristics of the material E355 are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3:

Mechanical properties and chemical composition of tested steel E355.

R p0.2 R m A Chemical composition (wt%)
(MPa) (MPa) (%) C Si Mn P S Al
379 546 33.0 0.196 0.186 1.350 0.010 0.0001 0.03

All specimens were produced by laser cutting, which is the procedure applied during standard component production and thus takes to account the corresponding influences. After cutting, the specimens were specifically adjusted to different hardness values by heat treatment (quenching and tempering). The parameters used, the hardness values achieved, and the correlating strengths, which were obtained from the hardness values under DIN EN ISO 18265 [15], for both materials are compiled in Table 4.

Table 4:

Parameters of heat treatment for the tested materials and hardness achieved as well as correlating strengths.

Material Quenching conditions Tempering conditions Achieved hardness (HV) Correlating strength (MPa)
C75 Salt bath at 210 °C for 15 min. 450 1455
500 1630
550 1810
600 1995
E355 390 °C for 2 h 370 1190
300 °C for 2 h 420 1350
without tempering 470 1520

2.3 Process media

The chemical loading of the test specimens was carried out analogous to the real thin-film galvanizing process using inhibited hydrochloric acid pickles. As part of the test program, five operational pickles were used as well as a pickle that was newly prepared in the laboratory as a reference. To make the hydrogen loading well-defined and comparable, the times of the chemical treatment were adjusted as a function of the pickle concentration (Table 5). The temperature of the pickles was held constant at 23 °C throughout all tests.

Table 5:

Parameters of inhibited newly prepared pickle and inhibited operational pickles used in the galvanizing process.

Pickle HCl concentration (g·l−1) Pickling timea (min)
Newly prepared 160 31
Operational pickle 1 157 32
Operational pickle 2 128 36
Operational pickle 3 126 37
Operational pickle 4 144 33
Operational pickle 5 156 32

  1. aat 23 °C.

2.4 Test procedures

In test Series 1 and 3, the effect of atomic hydrogen on material-related softening was evaluated by applying the constant strain rate (CSR) method, thereby inducing deformation of the test specimens in the area of plasticity over the duration of the test. In the course of the CSR test, each C-ring specimen is deformed in a displacement-controlled manner at 0.7 mm s−1. The test was conducted using a universal stress test device from iChemAnalytics GmbH (Figure 3). Ten C-ring specimens were tested for each hardness class and pickle.

Figure 3: Stress test device, a) overview of the apparatus, b) clamping mode of the C-ring specimen in the device.
Figure 3:

Stress test device, a) overview of the apparatus, b) clamping mode of the C-ring specimen in the device.

For each test, the applied deformations and the resulting load curves were recorded (Figure 4). The test criterion of the CSR tests is defined as the failure of the specimen (“failure”) or, in the case of ductile behavior up to the exponential increase in the test load, the transition from bending load to tensile load. For the material C75 used in test Series 1, this transition was determined in preliminary tests at a specimen expansion of 70 mm. For the material E355 used in test Series 3, the transition occurred at an expansion of 99 mm.

Figure 4: Exemplary load-deformation behavior of a specimen during CSR-testing.
Figure 4:

Exemplary load-deformation behavior of a specimen during CSR-testing.

From the load–displacement behavior obtained from the CSR tests, the specific deformability, the so-called deformation index D I, was determined for each set of parameters according to Equation (1):

(1) D I = ( ∑ i = 1 n W total ) n ⋅ exp ( 1 − A )

with W total: Sum of elastic work W el and plastic work W pl done (J), n: N number of specimens tested and A: Failure rate.

The material embrittlement index (MEI) is introduced to determine the degree of degradation of the ductility of the tested material caused by chemical (pickling) exposure. This was calculated from the difference between the deformability of the chemically, hydrogen treated specimens D I,H and the deformability of the chemically untreated reference specimens D I (Equation (2)).

(2) MEI CSR = D I,H − D I

with an MEI ≥ 0, the samples are not affected negatively, and the tested media (and thus the related processes) are assessed as noncritical. To account for the unavoidable scattering that occurs in the material and/or during testing, a deviation of the MEI into the negative range of 5% D I is defined as acceptable in accordance with the OEM quality management concept within the test regime of this investigation (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Evaluation of the manufacturing process on the basis of MEI.
Figure 5:

Evaluation of the manufacturing process on the basis of MEI.

If the MEI is below the specified limit, the manufacturing process under assessment is considered critical for the tested combination of pickling medium and material; thus, without additional measures, there is an increased probability of hydrogen-induced damage. In this case, material and/or process adjustments should be made to reduce criticality and/or additional measures should be taken in terms of process management and control to ensure component quality in the manufacturing process under consideration.

In test Series 2, the mechanical load was applied to the specimen in a displacement-controlled manner until the predefined stress state was reached at the apex of the C-ring specimen. For steel grade C75, which was the material to be tested, this value was set at 98% of the nominal yield strength. The resulting widening for the different hardness classes is listed in Table 6. This state was then kept constant for 48 h. A universal stress test device was used to perform the tests.

Table 6:

Principal procedure of CL tests and target expansion for different hardening classes.

Loading sequence Hardness (HV) Expansion (mm)
450 8
500 9
550 11
600 11

The test criterion for the CL tests is defined as the failure or non-failure of the specimen within the test duration, wherein the time until possible failure is irrelevant, and only a binary evaluation is carried out (“failure yes/no”). Ten C-ring specimens were tested for each hardness class and pickle, and the evaluation determined the percentage of specimens broken per test lot, termed the failure rate.

3 Results

3.1 Results of test Series 1

Test Series 1 shows that material C75 in the 450 HV and 500 HV Hardness classes did not experience any technically relevant influence from the pickling process across all tested media. The test specimens exhibited consistently ductile load-deformation behavior under a mechanical load. No premature failures were observed for a specimen in any variant, that is, all samples could be deformed up to a predefined maximum expansion of 70 mm. Thus, the resulting strain reached the same level in all variants compared to the unpickled reference specimens. In Figure 6, this can be clearly seen from the calculated deformation index. The scatter within the two hardness classes was low. Differentiation between the different pickling media is not possible because of the obvious absence of deformation index deviations.

Figure 6: Deformation index for material C75 at different degrees of hardness determined from CSR tests.
Figure 6:

Deformation index for material C75 at different degrees of hardness determined from CSR tests.

Compared to the high deformation level achieved in the Hardness classes of 450 HV and 500 HV, the deformation level dropped significantly at a hardness of 550 HV and even more so at a hardness of 600 HV. It should be noted, however, that this applies to both the chemically unloaded and the stained specimens; that is, at least part of the reduced ductility is related to the deformation capacity of the basic structure, which decreases with increasing strength.

In both hardness categories, significantly larger scatter occurred within the experimental variants, which is to be expected with decreasing ductility and increasing susceptibility to hydrogen-assisted cracking. Accordingly, there were major deviations in the averaged results. Nevertheless, a clear distinction can be made between the tested pickling media compared with the respective reference specimens; in the case of samples stained in the Newly prepared pickle, the deformation index within the hardness class dropped to approximately one-half (at 550 HV) or one-third (at 600 HV) of the initial value, whereas in the case of Operational pickles 1–5, only a moderate reduction of approximately 10% (at 550 HV) or 1.5% (at 600 HV) occurred.

The derivation of the embrittlement indices, MEI, led to the results presented in Figure 7. The values represent the deviation from the chemically unloaded reference samples within each hardening class.

Figure 7: Material embrittlement indices, MEI, for material C75 at different degrees of hardness determined from CSR tests.
Figure 7:

Material embrittlement indices, MEI, for material C75 at different degrees of hardness determined from CSR tests.

In addition, in Figure 7, the lower limits of the MEI are given for each hardness class, defined as 5% of the deformability DI achieved in the unloaded state. As can be seen, this limit was met for material C75 up to a hardness of 500 HV, indicating a non-critical manufacturing process.

3.2 Results of test Series 2

In test Series 2, the same material and pickling variants were investigated as in test Series 1, but the CL test was used. In analogy to the CSR method, a clear distinction can be made between the results of the Hardness classes 450 HV and 500 HV on the one hand and 550 HV and 600 HV on the other. In the former classes, no specimen breaks occurred within the 48-h test period, which corresponds to a 0% failure rate. In the Hardness class 550 HV, the first fractures occurred, with 100% of the samples stained in the Newly prepared pickle failed and the samples treated in the other operational pickles uniformly had a failure rate of 20%. This behavior is entirely in accordance with the characteristics observed in CSR tests. In the 600 HV Hardness class, a further increase in the failure rate up to almost 100% was observed for all variants. This increase also corresponds to the reaction of the material to the respective chemical and mechanical loads already found in CSR tests.

Figure 8 summarizes the failure rates determined from the CL tests for the four hardening classes and different pickling conditions.

Figure 8: Failure rates for the material C75 determined from CL tests at different degrees of hardness.
Figure 8:

Failure rates for the material C75 determined from CL tests at different degrees of hardness.

3.3 Results of test Series 3

Based on the results from test Series 1, C-shaped specimens made of material E355 were tested in Series 3 in the untreated reference condition and, for reasons of efficiency, in only two pickling conditions: the Newly prepared pickle and Operational pickle 1. It was found that the test specimens did not fail owing to fracture in any of the test lots. Among all the tested variants, the C-ring specimens could be deformed to the maximum expansion and a high strain level in the initial condition could be achieved (Figure 9).

Figure 9: Deformation index for the material E355 at different degrees of hardness determined from CSR tests.
Figure 9:

Deformation index for the material E355 at different degrees of hardness determined from CSR tests.

Across the three hardness classes investigated, it can be seen that irrespective of the treatment procedure, the deformation index increased with increasing hardness. However, since this effect also affects the untreated reference specimens, no conclusions can be made on any relation with the hydrogen effect relevant to this study; thus, this aspect is not further elaborated.

The noncritical material behavior is also reflected in the MEI (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Material embrittlement indices, MEI, for material E355 at different degrees of hardness, determined from CSR tests.
Figure 10:

Material embrittlement indices, MEI, for material E355 at different degrees of hardness, determined from CSR tests.

4 Discussion

Material E355, which is relevant with regard to the application of the component, showed consistent noncritical behavior with regard to the possible risk of hydrogen assisted fracture in the stress tests under a constant strain rate up to the maximum adjustable hardness of 470 HV. No hydrogen degradation of the steel´s ductility and no hydrogen-assisted cracking occurred as a result of the wet chemical treatment in the pickles used in this experimental program and the measured deformation index D I,H remained unaffected after pickling. The MEI derived from these two indices indicates a noncritical manufacturing process for material E355 in combination with the investigated operating pickles.

In order to induce a material influence in the form of hydrogen-induced material softening and quantify the effect of the pickling media investigated, the use of a significantly more hardenable material of nominal grade C75 is required. Based on the four hardness grades used in this study, a more differentiated picture can be derived: up to a hardness of 500 HV, no technically relevant embrittlement phenomena occurred after pickling in the investigated media, whereas the results of the CSR tests are characterized by a high reproducibility with low deviations. Above 550 HV, the deformation capacity of the quenched and tempered reference specimens decreased and the sensitivity to the pickling media and the amount of hydrogen induced by these media decreased. In some cases, notable reductions in the deformation index occurred in significantly higher scatter, while the laboratory-based new preparation of the pickle led, as expected, to the greatest losses. In contrast, Operational pickles 1–5 showed a more or less uniform effect on the samples.

The CL tests provided results analogous to those of the CSR tests for the same hardness and pickling variants. However, by recording the load-deformation curves in the CSR method, the specific behavior of the chemically and mechanically loaded material can be resolved more precisely, and the influencing factors can be quantified. On the other hand, constant-load tests are easier to carry out in terms of experimental technology, which makes them more suitable for use in operation, for example, in the context of in-process quality assurance.

5 Conclusions

The tests showed that the pretreatment media, which are used in the microZINQ®-thin-film galvanizing process and were tested here, do not lead to hydrogen degradation of steel properties and hydrogen-assisted cracking in the technically relevant area up to a hardness of 500 HV under the specified operating conditions and the materials examined in the present test program. Up to this hardness, no differentiation can be observed with regard to the influence of the inhibitor content and/or acid concentration. The steel grades used for practical applications are primarily dictated by their strength and not their hardness. It can be inferred from the results that unalloyed and low-alloy steels with characteristics comparable to those of C75 and E355 up to a strength of approximately 1600 MPa can be classified as non-critical with regard to hydrogen embrittlement caused by the pretreatment media tested. Thus, the steel grades and strength ranges commonly used for thin-film galvanizing, for example, in the automotive sector for chassis components, can be considered noncritical based on the test results presented herein.

Corresponding author: Thomas Pinger, ZINQ Technologie GmbH, Gelsenkirchen, Germany, E-mail:

About the authors

Thomas Pinger

Thomas Pinger, born in 1976, studied civil engineering at the University of Kaiserslautern from 1996 to 2002. After working as a research assistant at the Steel Construction Institutes at the University of Kaiserslautern and at the RWTH Aachen University, where he also obtained his doctorate, he has been working for the ZINQ Group in Gelsenkirchen since 2008 and has been head of research and development there since 2013.

Jens Riedel

Jens Riedel, born in 1966, studied material science at the Technical University Berlin from 1990 to 1995. He worked for many years as the head of the surface technology department at Weidmüller Interface GmbH and is now the general partner at iChemAnalytics GmbH. He actively contributes to furthering the understanding and development of surface technology as the vice chairman of the Committee >Chemical and Electrochemical Coatings < by the German Institute for Standardization. As an educator, he teaches a course on surface technology in the master’s program of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Applied Sciences Lemgo.

Axel Diehl

Axel Diehl, born in 1969, studied mechanical engineering at the TU Darmstadt from 1989 to 1996. He then worked as a research assistant at the State Material Testing Institute and Institute of Materials Science at the TU Darmstadt, where he also obtained his doctorate. Afterward, he started working for Daimler in 2002, where he deals with the corrosion protection of aggregates, components and chassis parts.

Robert Mayrhofer

Robert Mayrhofer, born in 1967, studied material science at the Montanuniversity of Leoben, Austria from 1987 to 1993. After five years in the RD welding department of the steel maker Voest Alpine Stahl Linz GmbH, Austria including two years at INPRO, Berlin as a project manager for innovative production systems in the automotive industry he changed 1999 to DaimlerChrysler, where he is responsible for corrosion testing.

  1. Author contributions: All the authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this submitted manuscript and approved submission.

  2. Research funding: None declared.

  3. Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding this article.

References

[1] DIN 50997, Zinc-aluminium Coatings Applied by Thin Film Galvanizing of Steel – Requirements and Testing, Berlin, Germany, Beuth, 2020, in German.Search in Google Scholar

[2] ASTM A1072/A1072M, Standard Specification for Zinc-5 % Aluminum (Hot-dip) Coatings on Iron and Steel Products, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA, ASTM International, 2015.Search in Google Scholar

[3] I. M. Robertson, P. Sofronis, A. Nagao, et al.., “Hydrogen embrittlement understood,” Metall. Mater. Trans. B, vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 1085–1103, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11663-015-0325-y.Search in Google Scholar

[4] S. Lynch, “Hydrogen embrittlement phenomena and mechanisms,” Corros. Rev., vol. 30, nos. 3–4, pp. 105–123, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1515/corrrev-2012-0502.Search in Google Scholar

[5] T. Neeraj, R. Srinivasan, and J. Li, “Hydrogen embrittlement of ferritic steels: observations on deformation microstructure, nanoscale dimples and failure by nanovoiding,” Acta Mater., vol. 60, no. 8, pp. 5160–5171, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2012.06.014.Search in Google Scholar

[6] S. Serebrinsky, E. A. Carter, and M. Ortiz, “A quantum-mechanically informed continuum model of hydrogen embrittlement,” J. Mech. Phys. Solid., vol. 52, no. 10, pp. 2403–2430, 2004, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmps.2004.02.010.Search in Google Scholar

[7] M. M. Hall, “Effect of variable stress intensity factor on hydrogen environment assisted cracking,” Metall. Mater. Trans. A, vol. 42, pp. 304–318, 2011, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-010-0226-2.Search in Google Scholar

[8] H. Yu, J. S. Olsen, A. Alvaro, V. Olden, J. Hey, and Z. Zhang, “A uniform hydrogen degradation law for high strength steels,” Eng. Fract. Mech., vol. 157, pp. 56–71, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2016.02.001.Search in Google Scholar

[9] W. S. Walston, I. M. Bernstein, and A. W. Thompson, “The effect of internal hydrogen on a single-crystal nickel-base superalloy,” Metall. Trans. A, vol. 23, pp. 1313–1322, 1992, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02665063.Search in Google Scholar

[10] A. Barnoush, B. Yang, and H. Vehoff, “Effect of hydrogen and grain boundaries on dislocation nucleation and multiplication e with a NI-AFM,” Adv. Solid State Phys., vol. 47, pp. 253–269, 2008, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74325-5_20.Search in Google Scholar

[11] DIN 50969, Prevention of Hydrogen-Induced Brittle Fracture of High-Strength Steel Building Elements, Teil 2, Berlin, Germany, Beuth, 2013, in German.Search in Google Scholar

[12] J.-U. Riedel and V. Lipp, Hydrogen Embrittlement in Galvanic Processes Part III, ZVOreport 2, Hilden, Germany, Zentralverband Oberflächentechnik e.V., 2020, in German.Search in Google Scholar

[13] DBL 8461, Hot-dip Galvanized Prefabricated Parts (Batch Galvanizing), Stuttgart, Germany, Mercedes-Benz Factory Standard, 2019, in German.Search in Google Scholar

[14] DIN EN 10305, Steel Tubes for Precision Applications – Technical Delivery Conditions, Part 2, Berlin, Germany, Beuth, 2016.Search in Google Scholar

[15] DIN EN ISO 18265, Metallic Materials – Conversion of Hardness Values, Berlin, Germany, Beuth, 2014.Search in Google Scholar
Published Online: 2022-04-21
Published in Print: 2022-05-25

© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Experimental and dynamic thermal numerical investigation of a climate test chamber
  3. Influence of high-temperature, high-pressure, and acidic conditions on the structure and properties of high-performance organic fibers
  4. Microstructure analysis and mechanical properties of electron beam powder bed fusion (PBF-EB)-manufactured γ-titanium aluminide (TiAl) at elevated temperatures
  5. Microstructural evolution and impression creep properties of a lead-based alloy PbSn16Sb16Cu2
  6. Laser and TIG welding of additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4V parts
  7. Investigation of the hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of steel components during thin-film hot-dip galvanizing
  8. Effects of coating, holding force, stretching height, yield stress, and surface roughness on springback of steel in the V-stretch bending test
  9. Gradient-based optimizer for economic optimization of engineering problems
  10. Failure investigation of a spline half-shaft in a loader rickshaw differential system
  11. Manta ray foraging optimization algorithm and hybrid Taguchi salp swarm-Nelder–Mead algorithm for the structural design of engineering components
  12. Effect of tool rotational speed and position on mechanical and microstructural properties of friction stir welded dissimilar alloys AZ31B Mg and Al6061
  13. Effect of different joint angles on the mechanical strength of adhesive-bonded scarf and double butt–lap joints
  14. Buckling behavior of laminated composites with embedded delaminations
  15. Comparison of pull-out behavior of glass, basalt, and carbon rovings embedded in fine-grain concrete and geopolymer
https://doi.org/10.1515/mt-2022-2002
Keywords for this article
constant strain rate testing; constant load testing; hydrogen embrittlement; manufacturing process evaluation; material embrittlement index; thin-film hot-dip galvanizing

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Experimental and dynamic thermal numerical investigation of a climate test chamber
  3. Influence of high-temperature, high-pressure, and acidic conditions on the structure and properties of high-performance organic fibers
  4. Microstructure analysis and mechanical properties of electron beam powder bed fusion (PBF-EB)-manufactured γ-titanium aluminide (TiAl) at elevated temperatures
  5. Microstructural evolution and impression creep properties of a lead-based alloy PbSn16Sb16Cu2
  6. Laser and TIG welding of additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4V parts
  7. Investigation of the hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of steel components during thin-film hot-dip galvanizing
  8. Effects of coating, holding force, stretching height, yield stress, and surface roughness on springback of steel in the V-stretch bending test
  9. Gradient-based optimizer for economic optimization of engineering problems
  10. Failure investigation of a spline half-shaft in a loader rickshaw differential system
  11. Manta ray foraging optimization algorithm and hybrid Taguchi salp swarm-Nelder–Mead algorithm for the structural design of engineering components
  12. Effect of tool rotational speed and position on mechanical and microstructural properties of friction stir welded dissimilar alloys AZ31B Mg and Al6061
  13. Effect of different joint angles on the mechanical strength of adhesive-bonded scarf and double butt–lap joints
  14. Buckling behavior of laminated composites with embedded delaminations
  15. Comparison of pull-out behavior of glass, basalt, and carbon rovings embedded in fine-grain concrete and geopolymer
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 13.9.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/mt-2022-2002/html
Scroll to top button