Abstract
The Command and Control (C2) Agility theory developed by experts from the Command and Control Research Program based upon analysis of military operations, posits that a C2 approach is characterized by three dimensions: (1) allocation of decision rights, among entities, (2) patterns of interaction, and (3) distribution of information. An entity’s C2 approach is agile when these three dimensions can be changed as required due to a change in circumstances. The Institute for Defense Analyses has produced a handbook C2 by Design to guide operationalization of the C2 Agility theory. C2 agility becomes salient as complexity increases; and the complex, dynamic nature of disaster response environments suggests the applicability of C2 Agility theory to emergency management. This article builds on early NATO study panel findings that used disaster response case studies to validate C2A theory, and draws on existing case literature to identify what factors influenced C2A during Hurricane Katrina and explore how lessons learned from that response impacted C2A during the subsequent US response to Hurricane Sandy. The analysis uses C2A assessment factors from C2 by Design to examine these cases and recommends how the US government can achieve improved C2A during future responses to complex disasters.
Funding: Institute for Defense Analyses, Grant Number: Central Research Program Funding.
References
Alberts, David S. 2011. The Agility Advantage: A Survival Guide for Complex Enterprises and Endeavors. Washington, DC: DOD CCRP Publication Series. http://www.dodccrp.org/files/agility_advantage/Agility_Advantage_Book.pdf.10.21236/ADA631225Suche in Google Scholar
Alberts, David S., and Richard E. Hayes. 2007. The Future of Command and Control: Planning Complex Endeavors. Washington, DC: DOD CCRP Publication Series. http://www.dodccrp.org/files/Alberts_Planning.pdf.10.21236/ADA465653Suche in Google Scholar
Alberts, David S., Reiner K. Huber, and James Moffat. 2010. NATO NEC C2 Maturity Model. Washington, DC: DOD CCRP Publication Series. http://www.dodccrp.org/files/N2C2M2_web_optimized.pdf.Suche in Google Scholar
Alberts, David S., Kathleen M. Conley, Waldo D. Freeman, James H. Kurtz, and Mark E. Tillman. 2015. C2 by Design: Putting Command and Control Agility Theory into Practice Version 2.0. Alexandria, VA: Institute for Defense Analyses. https://www.ida.org/∼/media/Corporate/Files/Publications/IDA_Documents/SFRD/2016/D-5614.ashx.Suche in Google Scholar
Bier, Vicki. 2006. “Hurricane Katrina as a Bureaucratic Nightmare.” In On Risk and Disasters, edited by Ronald J. Daniels, Donald F. Kettl, and Howard Kunreuther, 243–254. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.10.9783/9780812205473.243Suche in Google Scholar
Burke, Ryan, and Sue McNeil. 2015. Toward a Unified Military Response: Hurricane Sandy and the Dual Status Commander. Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College Strategic Studies Institute. http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=1263.Suche in Google Scholar
Comfort, Louise. 2007. “Crisis Management in Hindsight: Cognition, Communication, Coordination and Control.” Public Administration Review 67 (Special Issue): 189–191. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4624696.10.1111/j.1540-6210.2007.00827.xSuche in Google Scholar
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. 2011. Joint Publication 5-0, Joint Operation Planning. Washington, DC: Department of Defense. http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp5_0.pdf.Suche in Google Scholar
Chamlee-Wright, Emily, and Virgil Henry Storr, eds. 2010. The Political Economy of Hurricane Katrina and Community Rebound. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. doi: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781849806541.10.4337/9781849806541Suche in Google Scholar
Department of Homeland Security. 2011. National Preparedness System. Washington, DC: DHS. Accessed http://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1855-25045-8110/national_preparedness_system_final.pdf.Suche in Google Scholar
Department of Homeland Security. 2015a. National Preparedness Goal. Second Edition. Washington, DC: DHS. http://www.fema.gov/national-preparedness-goal.Suche in Google Scholar
Department of Homeland Security. 2015b. “Disasters Overview.” July16. Accessed September 2, 2015, http://www.dhs.gov/disasters-overview.Suche in Google Scholar
DiPace, Michael S. 2014. The National Response Framework: A Cross-Case Analysis. Fort Leavenworth KS: Army Command and General Staff College. Accessed December 27 2016. http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA611764.Suche in Google Scholar
Drabek, Thomas E., and David A. McEntire. 2003. “Emergent Phenomena and the Sociology of Disaster: Lessons, Trends and Opportunities from the Research Literature.” Disaster Prevention and Management 12 (2): 97–112. doi: 10.1108/09653560310474214.Suche in Google Scholar
FEMA. 2010. “Fact Sheet: Incident Management Assistance Teams.” October 5. Accessed September 2, 2015, http://www.fema.gov/pdf/media/factsheets/2010/imat_fact_sheet_10_05_10.pdf.Suche in Google Scholar
FEMA. 2011. A Whole Community Approach to Emergency Management: Principles, Themes, and Pathways for Action FDOC 104-008-1. Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security. http://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1813-25045-0649/whole_community_dec2011__2_.pdf.Suche in Google Scholar
FEMA. 2013. Hurricane Sandy FEMA After-Action Report. Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security. https://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/documents/33772.Suche in Google Scholar
FEMA. 2014. FEMA Strategic Plan 2014-2018. Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security. https://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/documents/96981#Suche in Google Scholar
FEMA. 2016. “Core Capabilities.” Accessed December 27, 2016. https://www/fema.gov/core-capabilities.Suche in Google Scholar
Government Accounting Office. 2006. Coast Guard: Observations on the Preparation, Response and Recovery Missions Related to Hurricane Katrina GAO-06-903. Washington, DC: United States Governmental Accountability Office. http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d06903.pdf.Suche in Google Scholar
Government Accounting Office. 2008. Actions Taken to Implement the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 GAO-09-59R. Washington, DC: United States Governmental Accountability Office. http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-09-59R.Suche in Google Scholar
Harrald, John. 2006. “Hurricane Katrina: Recommendations for Reform.” Testimony to the Senate Homeland Security Government Affairs Committee. March 8, 2006. http://www.gwu.edu/∼icdrm/.Suche in Google Scholar
Jacoby Jr., Gen. Charles H., and Gen. Frank J. Grass. 2013. “Dual-Status, Single Purpose: A Unified Military Response to Hurricane Sandy. Homeland Security Today. March 11. Accessed September 2, 2015, http://www.hstoday.us/columns/guest-commentaries/blog/exclusive-dual-status-single-purpose-a-unified-military-response-to-hurricane-sandy/805345bdee0530ceef07d9e5b4c31002.html.Suche in Google Scholar
Jensen, Jessica, and William L. Waugh. 2014. “The United States’ Experience with the Incident Command System: What We Think We Know and What We Need to Know More About.” Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 22 (1): 5–17.10.1111/1468-5973.12034Suche in Google Scholar
Kadushin, Charles. 2004. “Some Basic Network Concepts and Propositions, Chapter 2.” In: Introduction to Social Network Theory. Working manuscript. New York. Accessed July 6, 2018, http://www.cin.ufpe.br/∼rbcp/taia/Kadushin_Concepts.pdf.Suche in Google Scholar
Morris, John C., Elizabeth D. Morris, and Dale M. Jones. 2007. “Reaching for the Philosopher’s Stone: Contingent Coordination and the Military’s Response to Hurricane Katrina.” Public Administration Review 67 (Special Issue): 94–106. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4624687.10.1111/j.1540-6210.2007.00818.xSuche in Google Scholar
Moynihan, Donald P. 2007. From Forest Fires to Hurricane Katrina: Case Studies of Incident Command Systems. Washington, DC: IBM Center for the Business of Government. http://www.businessofgovernment.org/report/forest-fires-hurricane-katrina-case-studies-incident-command-systems.Suche in Google Scholar
Moynihan, Donald P. 2009a. “The Network Governance of Crisis Response: Case Studies of Incident Command Systems.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 19: 895–915. DOI: 10.1093/jopart/mun033.Suche in Google Scholar
Moynihan, Donald P. 2009b. The Response to Hurricane Katrina. Geneva, Switzerland: International Risk Governance Council. https://irgc.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Hurricane_Katrina_full_case_study_web.pdf.Suche in Google Scholar
North Atlantic Treaty Organization. 2013. C2 Agility Task Group SAS-085 Final Report STO-TR-SAS-085. Brussels, Belgium: NATO. http://www.dodccrp.org/sas-085/sas-085_report_final.pdf.Suche in Google Scholar
Smith, Jeffrey M. 2012. Comprehensive Common Operating Picture for Disaster Response. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command and General Staff College. http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a566815.pdf.10.21236/ADA566815Suche in Google Scholar
Townsend, Frances. 2006. Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina Lessons Learned. Washington, DC: The White House. http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS67263.Suche in Google Scholar
U.S. House of Representatives. 2006. A Failure of Initiative H. Rept, 109–377. Washington, DC: US. Government Printing Office. http://www.katrina.house.gov/.Suche in Google Scholar
Wachtendorf, Tricia, and James M. Kendra. 2006. “Improvising Disaster in the City of Jazz: Interorganizational Response to Hurricane Katrina.” SSCR. Accessed September 2, 2015, http://understandingkatrina.ssrc.org/Wachtendorf_Kendra/.Suche in Google Scholar
Supplementary Material
The online version of this article offers supplementary material (DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/jhsem-2017-0046).
©2018 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Research Articles
- Pre-Disaster Established Trust and Relationships: Two Major Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Implementing the ICS
- Household Disaster Preparedness in New York City before Superstorm Sandy: Findings and Recommendations
- C2 Agility for Emergency Management: Examining the Katrina and Sandy Responses
- An Analysis of the Emergency Fire Response to the Colorado 2012 Waldo Canyon and 2013 Black Forest Fires
- Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Full-Scale Exercise of Epidemiologic Capacity for Bioterrorism Response
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Research Articles
- Pre-Disaster Established Trust and Relationships: Two Major Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Implementing the ICS
- Household Disaster Preparedness in New York City before Superstorm Sandy: Findings and Recommendations
- C2 Agility for Emergency Management: Examining the Katrina and Sandy Responses
- An Analysis of the Emergency Fire Response to the Colorado 2012 Waldo Canyon and 2013 Black Forest Fires
- Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Full-Scale Exercise of Epidemiologic Capacity for Bioterrorism Response