Autistic children and control children use similar strategies when answering false belief questions
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Leena Mäkinen
Leena Mäkinen, PhD is a speech-language pathologist and a postdoctoral researcher at the Research Unit of Logopedics, University of Oulu, Finland. Her research interests are in children’s language development and its difficulties. In particular, she has focused on the pragmatic communication of children with typical language development, children with developmental language disorders and individuals on the autism spectrum.
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Katja Dindar
Katja Dindar, PhD is a psychologist and a postdoctoral researcher at the Research Unit of Logopedics, University of Oulu, Finland. Her research interests include social cognition, communication and interaction skills particularly in autistic children and adults.
Ilaria Gabbatore, PhD is a psychologist and psychotherapist. She got her PhD in Neuroscience – Cognitive Science at the University of Turin. After a few years Later, she has worked at the Research Unit of Logopedics, University of Oulu, Finland, she moved back to the University of Turin, where she is currently working as a postdoctoral researcher at the Department of Psychology - GIPSI Research group. Her research interests lie in the field of pragmatic communication, from both a developmental and a neuropsychological perspective, with a particular interest on the cross-cultural aspects of pragmatic development.
Aija Kotila, PhD speech language therapist, is a postdoctoral researcher at the Research Unit of Logopedics in the University of Oulu. Her research interests include pragmatic and social communication in autism spectrum and in typical development. She has been exploring this phenomenon especially from the brain level and fMRI study perspective.
Maria Frick is a university lecturer and adjunct professor at the University of Oulu (Finland). She conducts research in interactional linguistics, and multilingual and multimodal interaction. Frick leads the project
Linguistic and bodily involvement in multicultural interactions (2019–2025) which focuses on how people use language and bodily resources to communicate in multicultural encounters and how their underlying ideologies and attitudes influence their involvement in these encounters and society at large.Hanna Ebeling, MD, PhD is a professor emer. at the Research Unit of Clinical Medicine, Child Psychiatry, University of Oulu, Finland, and Oulu University Hospital. Her study interests include autism spectrum disorders and communication.
Soile Loukusa, PhD speech language therapist, is adjunct professor and university lecturer at the Research Unit of Logopedics in the University of Oulu, Finland. Her research focuses on pragmatic communication abilities in autistic persons and children with typical development.
Abstract
Difficulties in false belief reasoning are associated with autism spectrum. False belief tasks tend to be easy to administer and code, and thus are often used for testing purposes. However, the amount of information that can be gleaned from this type of assessment task goes beyond correct/wrong score attribution. Instead, fine-grained information may be derive from a detailed qualitative analysis of the content of the answers, as well as the strategies used to produce them. Moreover, the testing situation contains other interesting aspects, such as a child’s orientation to the task. Therefore, we examined both qualitatively and quantitatively the various ways children (15 autistic and 15 control children; mean age 7;5 years) responded to a false belief question. The false belief question was more difficult for the autistic than for the control children, but there was no statistically significant difference among the answering strategies between the groups. The answering strategies were mostly similar between the groups. Autistic children preferred to use nouns or locative pro-adverbs while answering, whereas control children used more versatile ways of answering, even though the length of the answers did not differ between the groups. When considering the orientation to the ongoing task, the autistic children had longer reaction times than the control children did. Some autistic children needed the researcher’s support to focus on the task, but in general, expressions of uncertainty or commenting during the task were not frequent among the children. The results of this study can be utilized in deepening our understanding of the abilities of autistic individuals and to develop sensitive ways to assess and support autistic children.
About the authors
Leena Mäkinen, PhD is a speech-language pathologist and a postdoctoral researcher at the Research Unit of Logopedics, University of Oulu, Finland. Her research interests are in children’s language development and its difficulties. In particular, she has focused on the pragmatic communication of children with typical language development, children with developmental language disorders and individuals on the autism spectrum.
Katja Dindar, PhD is a psychologist and a postdoctoral researcher at the Research Unit of Logopedics, University of Oulu, Finland. Her research interests include social cognition, communication and interaction skills particularly in autistic children and adults.
Ilaria Gabbatore, PhD is a psychologist and psychotherapist. She got her PhD in Neuroscience – Cognitive Science at the University of Turin. After a few years Later, she has worked at the Research Unit of Logopedics, University of Oulu, Finland, she moved back to the University of Turin, where she is currently working as a postdoctoral researcher at the Department of Psychology - GIPSI Research group. Her research interests lie in the field of pragmatic communication, from both a developmental and a neuropsychological perspective, with a particular interest on the cross-cultural aspects of pragmatic development.
Aija Kotila, PhD speech language therapist, is a postdoctoral researcher at the Research Unit of Logopedics in the University of Oulu. Her research interests include pragmatic and social communication in autism spectrum and in typical development. She has been exploring this phenomenon especially from the brain level and fMRI study perspective.
Maria Frick is a university lecturer and adjunct professor at the University of Oulu (Finland). She conducts research in interactional linguistics, and multilingual and multimodal interaction. Frick leads the project Linguistic and bodily involvement in multicultural interactions (2019–2025) which focuses on how people use language and bodily resources to communicate in multicultural encounters and how their underlying ideologies and attitudes influence their involvement in these encounters and society at large.
Hanna Ebeling, MD, PhD is a professor emer. at the Research Unit of Clinical Medicine, Child Psychiatry, University of Oulu, Finland, and Oulu University Hospital. Her study interests include autism spectrum disorders and communication.
Soile Loukusa, PhD speech language therapist, is adjunct professor and university lecturer at the Research Unit of Logopedics in the University of Oulu, Finland. Her research focuses on pragmatic communication abilities in autistic persons and children with typical development.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to all the children and their families who participated in the study. In addition, we wish to thank the schools and the day care centers, as well as the clinics of child neurology and child psychiatry at the University Hospital of Oulu for their valuable help with recruiting the children in this study. Finally, we thank the master students of logopedics for their help with the data collection.
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Research funding: This research was financially supported by the Academy of Finland and the Italian foundation Cassa di Risparmio di Torino (CRT). Project titled ‘Migliorare la comunicazione e la qualità della vita percepita: training dell’abilità comunicativa per adolescenti con disturbo dello spettro autistico’, (Grant No.2021.0552).
Appendix A: Transcription notation
| Text in italics | Original talk in Finnish |
| ‘Text in single quotation marks’ | English translation |
| ((text in double parentheses)) | Transcriber’s remarks concerning bodily embodied behaviours |
| (.) | Micropause < 0.2 s |
| (1.0) | Pause of 1.0 s |
| €smile€ | A word uttered with a smiley voice |
| [text in brackets] | Overlapping talk |
Appendix B: A comprehensive list of children’s answers to the false belief question
| Participant | Answer and description of the accompanied gesture | Answer accompanied with pointing or touching the relevant test objects | Correct/incorrect answer | Reaction time (seconds) for the answer | Note |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Control group
CC = control child |
|||||
|
|
|||||
| CCI | no täältä ’well from here’ | Touches the cow | Incorrect | 0.9 | |
| CC2 | lampailta etsii ’looks by the sheep’ | None | Correct | 1.2 | Touches the test objects while listening to the passage. |
| CC3 | lammasaidalta ’from the sheep pen’ | None | Correct | 0.7 | |
| CC4 | lampaista ’from the sheep’ | Points at the empty pen | Correct | 1.7 | Touches the test objects while listening to the passage. |
| CC5 | no täältä aitaukselta ’well from the pen here’ | Points at the empty pen | Correct | 1.1 | |
| CC6 | lampaitten luota ’by the sheep’ | None | Correct | 0.3 | |
| CC7 | lammasaitauksen luota ’by the sheep pen’ | None | Correct | 2.0 | |
| CC8 |
no sieltä nii sieltä pai- missä on niitä piti olla niitä nii niitä lampaita
’well from there well from that pla- where there are were supposed to be those well those sheep’ |
None | Correct | 1.3 | Speech dysfluency |
| CC9 | mmm mmm lampaiden luota ’uhm uhm by the sheep’ | None | Correct | 1.9 | Hesitations |
| CC10 | lampaitten luota ’by the sheep’ | Points at the empty pen | Correct | 1.5 | |
| CC11 |
siitä lampaitten- lammaspaikasta
’from the sheep’s sheep place’ |
None | Correct | 1.7 | Speech dysfluency |
| CC12 | no tuolta lampailta ’well by the sheep’ | None | Correct | 1.3 | |
| CC13 |
lammasaitauksesta jos ne on sopinut että Veera ja Tuukka menee sinne ku se käy ostamassa vesipullon
’from the sheep pen if they have agreed that Veera and Tuukka will go there while he goes and buys the bottle of water’ |
Touches the empty pen | Correct | 1.2 | Asks questions while listening to the passage. |
| CC14 |
no tietysti täältä lammasaitaukselta ja jos ei löyä niitä nii se huolestuu iha hirveesti
’well of course from the sheep pen here and if he doesn’t find them he gets terribly worried’ |
Places the little finger inside of the empty pen | Correct | 0.3 | Asks questions while listening to the passage. |
| CC15 | täältä ’from here’ | Places a hand inside of the empty pen | Correct | 0.3 | |
|
Autistic group
AC =Autistic child |
|||||
|
|
|||||
| AC1 | Does not answer verbally | Touches the empty pen | Correct | 0.8 | |
| AC2 | tästä ’from here’ | Points at the cow pen | Incorrect | 0.3 | |
| AC3 | Does not answer verbally | None | Incorrect | 1.4 | Plays with test objects: walks the dad paper doll to the cow pen as the answer. |
| AC4 | lammasaitaukselta ’from the sheep pen’ | None | Correct | 1.1 | |
| AC5 | tuolta ’from there’ | None | Incorrect | 1.6 | Touches the test objects while listening to the passage. The researcher supports concentrating on the task. |
| AC6 | lam- tuolta (.) lehmien luota ’shee- from there (.) by the cows’ | Points at the cow pen | Incorrect | 3.0 | Self-correction. |
| AC7 |
lehmäsä aitauksesta
’from the cow pen’ |
None | Incorrect | 0.9 | Touches the test objects while listening to the passage. The researcher supports concentrating on the task. |
| AC8 | no: siitä lammasaitauksesta ’well from the sheep pen’ | Touches the empty pen | Correct | 0.3 | |
| AC9 |
no ettii tääl- ettii joka paikasta
’looks from here- looks everywhere’ |
Points the empty pen | Correct | 0.7 | Self-correction. Touches the test objects while listening to the passage. |
| AC10 |
no täältä lammasaitauksesta mutta ei siellä oo mitään
’well from the sheep pen but there is nothing there’ |
Touches the empty pen | Correct | 3.0 | Touches the test objects and ask questions while listening to the passage. The researcher supports concentrating on the task. |
| AC11 | lehmän aitaukselta ’from the cow’s pen’ | None | Incorrect | 3.2 | Comments the passage. |
| AC12 | lammasaitauksesta ’from the sheep pen’ | None | Correct | 0.4 | |
| AC13 | lammaspaikasta ’from the sheep place’ | None | Correct | 1.3 | Asks questions while listening to the passage. The researcher supports concentrating on the task. |
| AC14 | tuolta ’from there’ | Points the cow pen | Incorrect | 1.6 | Touches the test objects while listening to the passage. |
| AC15 | tuolta ’from there’ | Points the cow pen | Incorrect | 0.4 | |
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© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Interculturality and decision making: Pursuing jointness in online teams
- A cross-cultural perspective on the comprehension of novel and conventional idiomatic expressions
- Autistic children and control children use similar strategies when answering false belief questions
- Forum
- A socio-cognitive reinterpretation of Grice’s theory of conversation
- Book Reviews
- Wang, Binhua and Jeremy Munday: Advances in discourse analysis of translation and interpreting: Linking linguistic approaches with socio-cultural interpretation
- Marzieh Sadeghpour & Farzad Sharifian: Cultural linguistics and world Englishes
- Kate Scott: Pragmatics online
- Eulogy
- Bruno G. Bara February 28, 1949 to November 7, 2023: A eulogy to a brilliant mind
- Corrigendum
- Corrigendum to: Ishihara, Noriko and Andrew D. Cohen. 2021. Teaching and learning pragmatics: Where language and culture meet (2nd edn.). New York & London: Routledge, xii+354 pp. ISBN 978-1-003-16818-8
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Interculturality and decision making: Pursuing jointness in online teams
- A cross-cultural perspective on the comprehension of novel and conventional idiomatic expressions
- Autistic children and control children use similar strategies when answering false belief questions
- Forum
- A socio-cognitive reinterpretation of Grice’s theory of conversation
- Book Reviews
- Wang, Binhua and Jeremy Munday: Advances in discourse analysis of translation and interpreting: Linking linguistic approaches with socio-cultural interpretation
- Marzieh Sadeghpour & Farzad Sharifian: Cultural linguistics and world Englishes
- Kate Scott: Pragmatics online
- Eulogy
- Bruno G. Bara February 28, 1949 to November 7, 2023: A eulogy to a brilliant mind
- Corrigendum
- Corrigendum to: Ishihara, Noriko and Andrew D. Cohen. 2021. Teaching and learning pragmatics: Where language and culture meet (2nd edn.). New York & London: Routledge, xii+354 pp. ISBN 978-1-003-16818-8
