Another member out of the family: the description of manner of gait in Changana verbs of motion

Sérgio N. Menete; Guiying Jiang

doi:10.1515/flin-2024-2016

Article

Another member out of the family: the description of manner of gait in Changana verbs of motion

Sérgio N. Menete and Guiying Jiang

Published/Copyright: April 1, 2024

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From the journal Folia Linguistica Volume 58 Issue 2

Abstract

In this paper, we show that the widely accepted tendency that manner of motion is described in greater detail in S-languages than in V-languages does not hold for all natural languages. Based on the analysis of manner of gait verbs applying the “lexical approach” (Kövecses, Zoltán. 2015. Surprise as a conceptual category. Review of Cognitive Linguistics 13(1). 270–290), this study shows that in the manner verb lexicon parameter, manner description in Changana (a V-language) is more nuanced than in prototypical S-languages like English (Talmy, Leonard. 2000. Toward a cognitive semantics, vol. II. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press). Contrary to the general tendency of V-languages, Changana presents a rich vocabulary of manner verbs and ideophones that cover many semantic dimensions. Our results suggest that while preserving some features of V-languages, Changana also makes distinctions that are usually only attested in S-languages, even exploring manner dimensions not often explored in S-languages. Our findings suggest that Changana is another language that does not fit well into Talmy’s well-established motion events typology.

Keywords: manner of motion; manner salience; verb lexicon size; ideophones; Changana

Corresponding author: Guiying Jiang, College of Foreign Languages and Cultures, Xiamen University, No. 422, Siming South Road, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, China, E-mail: gyjiang@xmu.edu.cn

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the Editor-in-Chief, Viviana Masia, for her positive assessment of the earlier version of the manuscript and to two anonymous reviewers for their review comments and constructive criticism, which have helped us improve the overall quality of the paper. We also thank Michael Fiddler for reading through the manuscript and for asking us challenging questions, which have helped us re-frame our argument, and Jing Tang for her support with statistical analyses. All remaining shortcomings are our responsibility.

Appendix A: Fine-grained classification of manner of walking verbs in Changana, English and Portuguese

Semantic domain	Fine grained specification	Changana	English	Portuguese
Default motion	Basic motion	-famba ‘walk’	Walk	andar ‘walk’ caminhar ‘walk’
Ways of walking	Unsteady motion	-chéd’éngéla ‘hop’ -dádá/dédá ‘toddle’ -debzeleka ‘walk slackly’ -dedereka ‘stagger’ -déyá ‘toddle (child, convalescent)’ -dlambadlamba ‘toddle’ -dlídlívéka ‘take quick steps to regain balance’ -gigiseka ‘reel’ -khina ‘limp’ -khúngá ‘limp’ -khèlèwa-khèlèwa ‘walk unsteadily (due to fatigue)’ -khwita ‘limp due to injure’ -kuhuta ‘limp’ -ntlúlántlúláká ‘hop about’ -phewaphewa ‘walk leaning to one side’ -tlúlátlúla ‘hop’ -vokonyo-vokonyo ‘stagger moving one’s head each step due to drunkenness’	Hop Hobble Limp Lurch Shamble Stagger Stumble Toddle Totter	bordejar ‘stagger (as due to the effect of drunkenness)’ cambalear ‘stagger’ cambar ‘stagger/twist one’s legs’ cambetear ‘limp, hobble’ obliquar (from oblíquo ‘oblique’) ‘uneven walk’ coxear ‘limp (due to a physical deformity or sickness)’ mancar ‘limp (e.g., due to an injury)’ manquejar ‘hobble’ saltarilhar ‘hop’
Ways of walking	Furtive motion	-kanyatela ‘walk carefully’ -ngungumela ‘walk tentatively’ -nyánímélá ‘walk cautiously and silently (to avoid being spotted)’ -kànya-kànya ‘walk slowly and sneakily (as if to catch a prey)’ -nyàva-nyava ‘tiptoe’	Creep Prowl Slink Sneak Tiptoe
Psychological state of the Figure	Aimless motion	-dlodloseka ‘wander, roam’ -péngwá ‘wander’ -pépétséka ‘roam’ -tlotloseka ‘roam’ -tséndzéléka ‘wander’ -zúlá/zhúlá ‘wander (often in a search of place)’ -yingayinga ‘wander (emphasizes the lack of purpose in the walk’)	Mooch Roam Sleepwalk Somnambulate Wander	andejar ‘wander’ bandolear ‘wander’ deambular ‘wander about’ divagar ‘roam’ vagar ‘walk at random’ zangurrar ‘loiter’ zanzar ‘wander’ zaranzar ‘wander’ zingarear ‘loiter’ borboletear ‘wander/flutter around like butterflies’ garavotear (from gaivota ‘seagull’) ‘wander from place to place’ saracotear ‘wander from one place to the other’ vagabundear ‘walk/go about from place to place without a particular purpose’ vaguear ‘walk from place to at random’ gandaiar ‘loiter’ vadiar ‘walk idly’
	Relaxed activity	-pasiyara ‘stroll’ -yímáyímá ‘stroll (emphasizes going to different places for leisure)’	Amble Meander Mosey Perambulate Promenade Ramble Saunter Stroll	passear ‘stroll’
	Attitude	-chóchóta ‘go around in the hope of finding something’ -dlídlíséka/dlítádlítéka/dlítíléka ‘go to and fro in search of a way out’ -dlívádlívéka ‘go to and fro in search of a way out’ -dzáná ‘go to and fro looking for something highly desired’ -dzánádzánéka ‘go to and fro looking for something highly desired but hard to find’ -dzenyengekò-dzenyengekò ‘walk swaying one’s hips in a showing off fashion (generally for woman)’ -jòbza-jòbza ‘walk as if in spiritless state’ -khankha ‘rush towards s.o. (in joy)’ -nyakula ‘strut’ -phandha ‘go out looking for home provisions’ -rhántá ‘pace back and forth (for not knowing what to do)’ -súmbáléta ‘walk haltingly’ -tálátáléka ‘go to and fro (in search of a way out)’ -tshetshembuteka ‘hurry to and fro (due to anxiety or fear)’ -yímélétéka ‘go to and fro in search of a way out’ -yímáyíméka ‘pace to and fro clumsily or in panic’	Prance Sashay Stalk Stomp Strut Swagger Traipse	amarroar ‘walk in a downhearted mood’
Physical state of the Figure	Posture	-dluva ‘hop in squatting position’ -gugumela ¹ ‘walk stooping down to hide oneself’ -khokhovela ‘stoop/flatten oneself to crawl under something low’ -khúnkúséla ‘walk haltingly and stooping’	Slouch
	Additional info about the Figure	-bzámbúlá ‘walk in the open completely naked’ -cákáyíla ‘go about in tatters’ -cámbúla ‘walk naked (man)’ -mbúnyátá ‘walk naked (woman)’ -chólólóká ‘walk one after the other forming a line’ -gìdì-gìdì ‘walk in masses’ -kàmbzinyà-kàmbzinyà ‘to walk naked’	Trip¹ Waddle Troop Mince Pace Pad Edge File Dodder	corsear (from corso ‘school’) ‘walk like as school’ encontroar ‘walk in masses bumping one onto another’ formiguejar (from formiga ‘ant’) ‘walk in masses (like ants)’ roncear (from ronceiro ‘sluggish’) ‘walk sluggishly’ serpear (from wriggle) ‘walk while dragging one’s feet on the ground’ tamanquear ‘walk wearing clogs’
	Information about the legs/steps	-condzo-condzo ‘walk like a heron, walk like a tall slim person’ -dlò-dlò-dlò ‘walk with long wide steps (generally for tall people)’ -dùva-dùva-dùva ‘walk as if one’s legs a swaying or swinging (e.g., like a peacock feather)’ -dzùkwà-dzùkwà ‘waddle’ -gwírímbá ‘stride’ -jondzo-jondzo ‘walk as wader birds (e.g., ostrich) do’ -kàtsembè-kàtsembè ‘walk with a large slow step’	Goosestep March Skip Stride	colear ‘zigzag walk’
	Use of hands or other body parts	-kasa ‘crawl’ -mpshimpsha ‘crawl on one’s belly’ -ndzundza ‘crawl on buttocks’	Crawl	engatinhar ‘crawl’
Features of ground	Ground type	-cabzata/cabzatela ‘walk through shallow water, producing sounds of splashing’ -chàkàlà-chàkàla ‘walk on dry leaves and sticks producing a sound by steps’ -chefula ‘walk ploddingly through sandy soil’ -cholàcholà ‘walking on dry leaves producing a sound by one’s steps’ -dabula ‘walk heavily with feet full of mud, usually in a quagmire’ -khupuka ‘wade (across a river)’ -khúvúnga ‘wade (with the water reaching ones knees)’ -ngunga ‘walk in the dark’ -tlhónyá ‘go straight through obstacles (as in a bush)’ -tlhotlhovela ‘go straight through the bush’ -xoxomela ‘walk slowly through grass’ -xòxò-xòxò ‘walk slowly in the forest (like hunters do)	Hike Trek Wade Backpack	bosquerejar (from bosque ‘woods’) ‘walk in the woods’ labirintar ‘walk in a labyrinth’ matejar ‘walk in the bush’
Features of ground	Obstructed motion		Trip²	tropeçar ‘trip’
Rate	Fast motion	-gabula ‘walk fast’ -hatlisa ‘walk quickly’ -húbzáhúbzéka ‘hurry to and fro’ -kahlula/khápúlá ‘walk quickly’ -kháxámbá ‘walk quickly’ -khúzá ‘rush’ -lalamela ‘walk fast as snake’	Tear Scurry Rush Dart Dash	choutar ‘walk in a slow trot’ corrichar ‘haste’ galopar ‘fast walk’
Rate	Slow motion	-svàsvatà-svàsvatà ‘walk dragging one’s foot to the ground (e.g., as a sick person)’ -tàma-tàma ‘walk slowly (as a child)’		rastejar ‘crawl, creep’ reptar ‘crawl, drag oneself along the ground’ caranguejar (from caranguejo ‘crab’) ‘walk slowly/hesitant’
Time	Night	-kitsa ‘walk by night’
Force	Effort	-búbúli ‘trail along the ground’ -kókákóka ‘drag oneself along the ground’ -tshetsha ‘trail/step back’, -wáchúlá ‘walk energetically (moving the arms)’	Clump Parade Plod Shuffle Slog Tramp Trudge	desfilar ‘march/parade (past)’. marchar ‘march’
Path	Direction	-rhendzeleka ‘circle (something) walking’, -rhendzelekela ‘walk in circles’ (e.g., spin), -tlhetlha/hlehla ‘move backwards/step back’	Lunge	caracolar (from caracol ‘snail’) ‘walk making half turns to the right and to the left’
Total		98	68	50

Appendix B: Fine-grained classification of manner of running verbs in Changana, English and Portuguese

Semantic domain	Fine grained specification	Changana	English	Portuguese
Default motion	Basic motion	-gijima ‘run’ -tsutsuma ‘run’	Run	correr ‘run’
Psychological state of the Figure	Relaxed activity	-cunga ‘move around quickly as young children in play’	Gambol
Psychological state of the Figure	Attitude		Skedaddle
Physical state of the Figure	Posture	-gugumela ² ‘run stooping down to hide oneself’
	Additional info about the Figure	-kakáka-kakáka scamper	Scamper
	Information about the legs/steps	-cocongo-cocongo ‘run with majestic steps, as antelope’ -dlodlongò-dlodlongò ‘run with gracious leaps’	Lope Scuttle
Rate	Fast running	-cácárhátéka ‘move about suddenly and swiftly, as young children in play’/‘dart’/‘dash’ -báléká ‘escape from/bolt’ -hátlá ‘haste’ -hatlisa ‘rush’/‘hurry’ -phangisa ‘haste’ -ntlha ‘run’	Bolt Hasten Gallop Hurry Race Scurry Speed Sprint Streak	acelerar ‘accelerate, speed up’ percorrer ‘run (across)’
Rate	Slow running	-gányúlá ‘jog with a steady slow trot’ -dladla ‘trot’	Trot Jog	corriçar ‘slow trot’ trotar ‘trot-walk’ estrotejar ‘trot’
Path	Direction	-caa ‘run after something/someone’ -tsutsumela ‘run to/for’		fugir ‘run away’
Total		17	17	7

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Received: 2023-08-25

Accepted: 2024-02-22

Published Online: 2024-04-01

Published in Print: 2024-08-27

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Articles in the same Issue

https://doi.org/10.1515/flin-2024-2016

Keywords for this article

manner of motion; manner salience; verb lexicon size; ideophones; Changana