A Sourcebook in Classical Confucian Philosophy

Classical Confucian philosophy serves as a foundational pillar in the intellectual tradition of China, constructing a diverse tapestry of social, political and ethical thought (Fraser 2021). The significant studies in this rich tapestry move around the grand works of key figures like Confucius, Mencius, and Xunzi, sharing valuable insights into their profound teaching and the diversified cultural landscapes in which they lived. The scholars take into account the extensive analyses of classical texts, e.g., Analects, the Book of Mencius, and the Xunzi, exploring the nuanced philosophies that continue to impact Chinese cultural traditions. While exploring the intricate Confucian ideologies, the scholars navigated between topics ranging from ethical considerations and family honor to the syncretistic philosophies that evolved in reaction to historical challenges (Afzaal 2022). Contemporary scholars like Roger T. Ames, Chris Fraser, Carine Defoort, and Nicolas Standaert have contributed significantly to this field, reinvigorating the study and research in Confucianism and revitalizing the classical texts to appreciate them in the contemporary global scenario. In navigating these scholarly explorations, the study of classical Confucian philosophy emerges as an enduring intellectual pursuit with far-reaching implications for global philosophical dialogues (Afzaal et al. 2022; Standaert 2020).

The book “A Sourcebook in Classical Confucian Philosophy” by Roger T. Ames invites the readers on an insightful journey to explore the rich tapestry of conventional Chinese philosophy. This volume is linked with the earlier works by Ames, particularly “Conceptual Lexicon for Classical Confucian Philosophy,” and offers an extensive presentation of Chinese texts and their standard translations. Using the comparative cultural hermeneutics approach, the author paves the way for a profound understanding of Chinese traditions and their linguistic intricacies. Whether knowledgeable or learners, readers are compelled to draw their desired comparisons, navigating effortlessly between text translations, insightful commentaries, and an all-inclusive lexicon of essential philosophical terms. The book’s main objective is to inspire readers to explore the interpretative context, following diverse intellectual descriptions that ultimately guide them to comprehend the nuanced intricacies of original Chinese conventional terminologies. Moving with gradually deepening comprehension, readers discern the complex analyses of alternative translations, enhancing their conceptualization of classical Confucian ideologies.

Chapter 1 meticulously unravels the intricate tapestry of Confucian natural cosmology, presenting it as a vital interpretive framework. Delving into the underlying assumptions guiding this interpretation, the author provides readers with a nuanced understanding of the philosophical landscape that will serve as a foundation for subsequent discussions. Drawing on the insights of scholars such as Nathan Sivin and Marcel Granet, the narrative engages with the correlative mode of thinking, positioning it as a pivotal element within a limited yet remarkably productive collection of ideas. The chapter expertly traces the evolution of this mode of thinking within the Chinese cultural heritage, drawing parallels with the influential impact of metaphysical realism on the formation of categories in Western philosophical discourse. Building on the scholarship of historian Wang Aihe and others, the author contends that correlative cosmologies were not confined to the intellectual elite but functioned as a widely shared symbolic language accessible to both intellectuals and ordinary people for communication and contemplation. The chapter reaches a crescendo with an illuminating exploration of recent archaeological findings from the Warring States period.

In the compelling second chapter of “The Book of Changes (Yijing): A Process Cosmology,” the author turns the spotlight onto the venerable Confucian canons, delving into their pivotal role in shaping China’s intellectual history. The exposition of the Changes within this context serves as a didactic demonstration of the profound ecological philosophy it endeavors to communicate. The chapter invites readers to shift their perspective from mere consideration of “things” to contemplating the nature of “events” within the process worldview. Through this lens, the specific focuses are intricately linked to their respective domains, fostering a holographic comprehension of world systems. Drawing on the insights of Willard Peterson, the text of the Changes is revealed to emphasize particular aspects within the realm of heaven and earth, thereby echoing relationships and processes inherent in the broader universe. Peterson asserts that a deep comprehension of these connections and processes forms the foundation for effective action in human society.

In the enlightening third chapter of the book, the author delves into the core of early Confucian education, highlighting the pivotal role played by the canonical document known as the Record of Rituals (Liji 禮記). Originating during the early Han dynasty, this work is enriched by incorporating certain sections from the Warring States period, notably in the Third chapter. The author meticulously traces the inclusion of the Confucian corpus during the Han dynasty, noting that from the Song dynasty onwards, the Record of Rituals and its accompanying annotations assumed a central position in the regular curriculum for civil service examinations. This historical exploration offers readers a profound understanding of the enduring significance of the Record of Rituals within the educational framework of Confucian thought, shedding light on its evolution and consolidation over time. As the author navigates the intricate details of the Record of Rituals, readers are presented with a comprehensive view of its educational role, contextualizing its relevance from its inception to its institutionalized presence in the civil service examinations of later dynasties.

In Chapter 4, titled “An Elementary Lexicon of Confucianism,” the author explores notable figures from ancient times, such as Socrates, Buddha, and Jesus, juxtaposed with the unique challenge of Confucius’ lack of definitive written works. Instead, our understanding of Confucius and his ethical perspectives is gleaned from a careful analysis of records of his teachings and descriptions of his life found in sources like the Analects. However, the reliability of these accounts may vary. The chapter delves into the chronological and pivotal aspects of Confucius, who was hailed as China’s inaugural eminent educator. It accentuates the profound impact of his theories on the development of Chinese cultural heritage, shaping the concept of “Chineseness” that persists over 2,500 years after his passing. Confucius emerges as a foundational figure, and the author navigates the enduring influence of his exemplary personal excellence. The Sinitic cultures of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam are portrayed as having evolved distinctive ways of thinking and living rooted in Confucian ideas.

In the insightful fifth chapter, the author briefly overviews the historical backdrop surrounding the figure “Master Meng.” Born in the state of Zou, situated in present-day Shandong province and proximity to Confucius’s birthplace, Mencius emerged as a critical figure in the transitional period from the Spring and Autumn era (770-476 BCE) to the Warring States period (475-221 BCE). While Confucius resided in the final years of the former, Mencius lived during the latter’s early years, a time marked by heightened conflicts among competing states on the central plains vying for dominance. The chapter expertly navigates the temporal shift between Confucius and Mencius, elucidating the turbulent era that witnessed a surge in violent conflicts among states. Before Mencius, Confucius spent a decade as a peripatetic advisor, traversing different states to persuade rulers of the wisdom and political efficacy of his teachings. In a parallel dedication, Mencius, like his predecessor, devoted a significant portion of his professional life to extensive travel accompanied by followers.

In Chapter 6, the author delves into the profound depths of the most elevated manifestation of the Confucian endeavor, focusing on Kong Ji, the grandson of Confucius and son of Confucius’s son Boyu, as detailed in the Analects. Renowned for his epithet, Zisizi 子思子, meaning “Master” Zisi, Kong Ji’s attribution is well-documented in the biography of Confucius found in the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji 史記) and various early sources. The chapter unravels the historical progression of this attribution while also unveiling compelling evidence linking the name Zisizi to the concept of “Focusing the Familiar.” This concept was initially recognized and incorporated in the Record of Rituals (Liji), a comprehensive compilation of ceremonial practices from the early Han dynasty, and it had an independent existence as a separate document in court bibliographies throughout the centuries. The author adeptly interconnects the historical descriptions, exploring the multidimensional nature of Zisizi’s significance and its link with the sustainable concept of “Focusing the Familiar,” strengthened by commentary collected over the centuries.

Chapter 7 examines the traditional family honor and essential moral obligations propounded by Confucianism. Master Zeng is the center of this exploration, significantly portrayed in a poem traditionally believed to be a posthumous composition in 435 BCE. The poem initially mentions on the surface Lüshichunqiu (吕氏春秋), a term probably used before 239 BCE. Hence, the Classic of Family Reverence, introducing new insights into Confucian principles, may be safely attributed to the Warring States period, renowned due to labor conflicts that predicted the rise of imperial China. However, the chapter contends with the doubts linked to the documents’ exact creation date and proper authorship. The origin of the texts created remains muddled with mystery and myths attributed to Confucius himself or proposing that the words were uttered initially by Confucius but transcribed by Master Zeng. An alternate account, emerging later, credits the creation of the piece to followers of Master Zeng, who were two generations removed from him and three generations removed from Confucius.

In Chapter 8, the author navigates the intricate landscape of virtuosic conduct, exploring the period between the teachings of Confucius and Mencius. At the center of this exploration is the rediscovery of the ancient text “Five Modes of Virtuosic Conduct (Wuxingpian),” a significant contribution to Confucian scholarship. Ascribed initially to the scholastic figure Guo Moruo in the 1940s, this document has been uncovered in two separate archaeological locations, presenting significant insights into what Guo Moruo termed the Zisizi-Mengzi lineage (SiMengxuepai). The first exploration dates back to 1973 in Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan, discovered the text with its origin located back to 168 BCE. Following this, a second discovery took place in Guodian Jingmen and Hubei in 1993, exploring bamboo strips tracing back to nearly 300 BCE. The varied findings of the redacted version of this document, dispersed along various locations and periods, highlight the historical significance associated with this document. This chapter adeptly uncovers the multiple layers of historical context around the “Five Modes of Virtuosic Conduct,” throwing light on its rediscovery and highlighting its sustainable relevance during particular historical contexts.

Chapter 9 unveils the mysterious figure of Master Mo (Mozi 墨子), a remarkable historical status in the traditional philosophical literature contemporaneous with Confucius’s departure dated back in 479 BCE. Master Mo, recognized for his skilled use of analogies, equating himself to a skillful artisan, traced in the literature mingled during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE). The Mozi, consisting of varied and evolving sections, highlights the significance of valuing interpretive situations in comprehending early philosophical dialects. Chris Fraser, Carine Defoort, and Nicolas Standaert, along with others leading the recent scholarship, have restored Mozi’s study, calling for a more extensive interpretation of this previously neglected and probably misunderstood text and history. The chapter scrutinizes the portrayal of the Mohists in Confucian texts, revealing a predominantly polemical tone akin to Confucian reactions to Buddhism in neo-Confucian writings. Exploring Mohist doctrines such as “personal cultivation” (xiushen), “promoting the worthy” (shangxian), “affection for scholar-officials” (qinshi), and “benefitting the whole world” (litianxia), it becomes apparent that Mohist philosophy shares fundamental principles with classical Confucianism. Despite surface-level differences, the Mohists advocate for core Confucian values centered around family, including “family reverence” (xiao 孝) and “exemplary behavior.”

In the concluding chapter, the author unveils a syncretic Confucian philosophy, delving into the profound insights of Xunzi. Through an exploration of Xunzi’s philosophical perspective, readers gain a distinct comprehension of the philosopher’s self-perception. Xunzi boldly asserts his rightful succession to Confucius’s heritage, emphasizing the paramount importance of the present human experience and the rigorous practice of personal development. Between 298 and 238 BCE, Xunzi believed that attaining a high moral character demanded dedicated effort and diligent practice. However, the chapter illuminates Xunzi’s unique historical context, which is set approximately two centuries after the end of the Warring States period. In this era, marked by the relentless impact of significant events, the renowned Qin general Bai Qi, known as “the human butcher,” achieved a brutal victory in 260 BCE, defeating and killing Zhao’s 450,000-strong army.

In conclusion, this extensive exploration of Confucian philosophy, spreading over ten insightful chapters, offers readers an enlightened journey across the rich tapestry of traditional Chinese philosophy. The books covers the nuanced cosmogonies and academic background of Confucianism, rediscovering the ancient documents and syncretical philosophy of Xunzi and the evolution of Confucian thought over the centuries. This work meticulously examines the historical texts and figures and emphasizes recontextualizing these traditional philosophies within the frame of their historical and cultural contexts. The exploration contributes to knowledge beyond the contemporary research landscape, rediscovering and reevaluating the Confucian scholarship. The book prospects scholarly engagement, interconnecting modern ethical dilemmas and global philosophical debates with Confucian philosophy. The students, scholars, and researchers in the area of Chinese philosophy can benefit from this work, developing a more profound appreciation for the sustainable impact of Confucian ideology. Overall, the book signifies the enduring relevance of Confucian philosophy and its permanent impact on shaping human values and societal structures.