From Traditional Narratives to Literary Innovation: A Quantitative Analysis of Virginia Woolf’s Stylistic Evolution

2.2.1 Multi-Dimensional Analysis

Introduced by Douglas Biber in 1988, multi-dimensional analysis (MDA) is an influential approach to studying linguistic variation in large corpora of texts. This quantitative method combines statistical techniques and linguistic analysis to identify systematic patterns of variation across different text types. Since its inception, multi-dimensional analysis has been widely adopted in corpus linguistics and stylistics, contributing to our understanding of linguistic diversity and text typologies. It is based on the principle that linguistic features co-occur in systematic ways to serve specific communicative functions. The operational laws of multi-dimensional analysis rely on statistical methods, primarily factor analysis (Biber 1988). Factor analysis is a statistical technique that reduces a large set of variables into a smaller, more interpretable set of factors by identifying the underlying dimensions of variation (Biber 1988). In multi-dimensional analysis, linguistic features, such as lexical, grammatical, and discourse structures, are treated as variables, and the goal is to identify the underlying dimensions that explain their co-occurrence patterns across different text types. There are 67 linguistic features which are specific, observable characteristics of language that serve as indicators of the underlying dimensions. Once the dimensions are identified, texts can be scored on each dimension to reveal their characteristic linguistic profiles, which can then be used to classify and compare text types (Biber 1988). This process enables researchers to uncover the underlying communicative functions of various linguistic features and understand how these functions are distributed across different text types.

The primary aim of multi-dimensional analysis is to provide a comprehensive and quantifiable description of linguistic variation across different text types in a large corpus (Biber 1988). By revealing systematic patterns of co-occurrence among linguistic features, multi-dimensional analysis seeks to uncover the functional motivations for these patterns and elucidate the communicative purposes they serve in different contexts. Another important aim of multi-dimensional analysis is to develop empirically-based text typologies that can account for the spectrum of linguistic diversity that may be present within a corpus (Biber 1988). By classifying texts based on their characteristic linguistic profiles, multi-dimensional analysis can reveal the underlying dimensions of variation that differentiate text types, offering insights into the communicative functions that distinguish them. Finally, multi-dimensional analysis can add to the understanding of the relationship between linguistic form and function, as well as the ways in which these relationships are mediated by context (Biber 1988). By uncovering the functional motivations for linguistic variation across different text types, multi-dimensional analysis can inform our understanding of the ways in which language is used to achieve specific communicative goals in different contexts and shed light on different register features.

Since its introduction in 1988, multi-dimensional analysis has undergone several refinements and extensions, both in terms of its methodological foundations and its applications to various research questions. Early work by Biber and colleagues focused on developing multi-dimensional analysis as a method for describing linguistic variation in English texts (Biber 1988, 1995). This work led to the identification of several dimensions of variation labelled as ‘interactive versus informational production,’ ‘narrative versus non-narrative concerns,’ ‘explicit versus situation-dependent reference,’ and ‘abstract versus concrete style.’ Subsequent research has applied multi-dimensional analysis to other languages, including Spanish (Biber 1992), Korean (Biber et al. 2021), and Russian (Conrad and Biber 2001). These studies have revealed both similarities and differences in the underlying dimensions of variation across languages, suggesting that some dimensions may be universal, while others may be language-specific. Moreover, multi-dimensional analysis has been used to investigate a wide range of research questions in corpus linguistics and stylistics, including genre analysis (Biber 1989), register variation (Biber, Conrad, and Reppen 1998), and the diachronic study of language use (Biber 2003). These diverse applications of multi-dimensional analysis have demonstrated its versatility as a method for exploring linguistic variation and its functional motivations.

Multi-dimensional analysis has proven to be a valuable tool in the field of stylistics, which aims to analyse and describe the linguistic features of texts and their functional roles in creating meaning and style. By quantifying linguistic variation and uncovering the underlying dimensions that structure this variation, multi-dimensional analysis offers insights into the ways in which authors use language to achieve specific stylistic effects and convey particular meanings. One notable application of multi-dimensional analysis in stylistics is the study of literary genres. For example, Biber (1989) examined the linguistic features of various genres in the British National Corpus, revealing distinct patterns of variation corresponding to different literary traditions and communicative functions. multi-dimensional analysis has also been applied to the study of historical change in literary styles.

In essence, multi-dimensional analysis has been instrumental in advancing our comprehension of linguistic variation and its functional drivers. By utilizing statistical methods to detect co-occurring linguistic patterns, multi-dimensional analysis has uncovered the key dimensions that shape language across diverse text categories and settings. This methodology has become integral to corpus linguistics and stylistics, aiding in the examination of genres, registers, linguistic evolution over time, and distinctive authorial voices.

2.2.2 Multi-Dimensional Analysis in Stylistic Studies

Multi-dimensional analysis has emerged as a pivotal tool in the quantitative exploration of stylistic studies. It is able to distil complex linguistic features into interpretable dimensions, which has not only enhanced our understanding of authorial voices but also facilitated cross-disciplinary studies. The utility of multi-dimensional analysis lies in its ability to capture the nuanced relationships between linguistic features and their communicative functions. For example, Egbert and Biber (2018) adeptly demonstrated how factor analysis and discriminant analysis, when applied within the multi-dimensional analysis framework, reveal the underlying discourse functions that drive register variation. This application underscores the strength of multi-dimensional analysis in uncovering the systematic patterns that characterize different text types. Moreover, multi-dimensional analysis has been instrumental in academic writing research. Crosthwaite (2016) conducted a longitudinal study on English for Academic Purposes (EAP) writing, illustrating how EAP instruction influences students to adopt academic writing conventions. This study exemplifies the potential of multi-dimensional analysis to shed light on the impact of language instruction on writing development. While numerous studies have applied multi-dimensional analysis to a wide range of linguistic phenomena, for the purpose of brevity and relevance, this review will focus on a select few that are most pertinent to our research on stylistic evolution. For instance, Alyousef’s (2023) examination of rhetorical move structures in Geography research abstracts highlighted the capacity of multi-dimensional analysis to dissect scholarly writing and emphasize the role of specific linguistic features in academic discourse.

Overall, multi-dimensional analysis is a powerful tool to examine the extent to which specific linguistic features vary across texts (Friginal and Weigle 2014), offering insights into linguistic analysis, register variation, and stylistic shifts across languages and cultures. A key advantage of multi-dimensional analysis is its ability to handle vast datasets, which enables it to identify patterns of co-occurring linguistic features that other methods might not be able to detect. This capacity to manage large volumes of data and uncover complex linguistic patterns is what sets multi-dimensional analysis apart from other methods and contributes to its value in stylistic studies. Unlike keyword analysis, which focuses on individual lexical items, multi-dimensional analysis considers the systemic relationships between features, offering a more comprehensive view of register variation. The other advantages of multi-dimensional analysis include its sensitivity to subtle linguistic patterns, and its potential for revealing underlying structures in language use. Multi-dimensional analysis also allows for the statistical testing of hypotheses about linguistic variation, providing a robust framework for empirical research. Therefore, the multi-dimensional analysis is deemed suitable for studying the writing evolution of Virginia Woolf.

4.1.1 Amplifiers

As mentioned above, the amplifiers that come into play in D1 include absolutely, altogether, completely, enormously, entirely, extremely, and so on, which mark heightened feeling (Biber 1988), as in (1):

1. As the rooms in which people live are apt to give off something of the same shock as their faces when seen for the first time, Rachel walked very slowly downstairs, lost in wonder at her uncle, and his books, and his neglect of dances, and his queer, utterly inexplicable, but apparently satisfactory view of life, when her eye was caught by a note with her name on it lying in the hall. (The Voyage Out)

In this sentence, the amplifiers ‘very’ and ‘utterly’ (marked bold by me, as with other example sentences below) emphasize the frequency of the nervous tremor felt by the character. By utilizing these amplifiers, Woolf effectively heightens the emotional impact of the sentence. They bring attention to Rachel’s contemplative state, her uncle’s eccentricity, and the conflicting emotions and thoughts she experiences. The amplifiers contribute to the overall atmosphere of the narrative, adding depth and intensity to Rachel’s observations and reactions. However, in the works of Virginia Woolf’s later writing career, when the need for amplification arises, metaphors, symbolic language, and imagery, as well as sensory expressions, are employed to achieve a more precise and poetic description, as in (2):

1. Low murmurings, a small hooting breeze and a tinkling of little bells sounded as if far, far away. I could not hear them distinctly. I had to strain to hear the murmurs, the hooting, the tinkling. (The Waves)

In this excerpt, Woolf employs auditory imagery and sensory details to depict the character’s attempt to discern distant sounds. The phrases ‘low murmurings’, ‘a small hooting breeze’, and a ‘tinkling of little bells’ create an atmosphere of subtle and distant sounds. The repetition of ‘I’ had to strain to hear emphasizes the character’s effort to capture these faint auditory cues. Through her vivid and evocative descriptions of sounds, Woolf artistically represents the character’s heightened sensitivity and the nuanced experience of perception. The choice of these specific auditory images serves to create a symbolic landscape that reflects the character’s internal state without the need for explicit amplification.

4.2.1 Split Auxiliaries

Split auxiliaries occur when adverbs are placed between auxiliaries and their main verb. They mark the speaker’s persuasion, that is, the speaker’s own assessment of likelihood or advisability (Biber 1988), as in (3):

1. It was a gift that they would impart if you asked them for it, and thus no dinner-party could possibly be dull, and little Mr. Peyton on her right and William Rodney on her left were in equal measure endowed with the quality which seemed to her so unmistakable and so precious that the way people neglected to demand it was a constant source of surprise to her. (The Voyage Out)

In this sentence, the split auxiliary construction ‘could possibly be’ includes the auxiliary verb could, the adverb possibly, and the verb be. This construction conveys the characters’ affirmation that the dinner-party is not dull. In her early works, Virginia Woolf employed split auxiliaries to emphasize characters’ sentiments, preferences, or reservations, allowing for a clearer expression of persuasion or intention. The decreased frequency of split auxiliaries in the LWC suggests a stylistic shift away from this construction in Woolf’s later works. This change may reflect her exploration of more streamlined sentence structures and a departure from explicitly conveying persuasion through split auxiliary constructions. In her later works, Woolf focused on experimental techniques and delved into the subjective experiences and inner thoughts of her characters, utilizing diverse narrative strategies to evoke meaning and captivate readers.

4.2.2 Infinitives

Although infinitives can have other functions, they are most commonly used as adjective and verb complements in English; in these constructions, the head adjective or verb frequently (e.g., happy to do it; hoped to see it) encodes the speaker’s attitude or stance towards the proposition encoded in the infinitival clause (Biber 1988), as in (4):

1. He began to think that he would be justified in saying what he thought. (Night and Day)

In this sentence, the infinitive ‘to think’ is used to convey the character’s internal thought process and justification for expressing the character’s opinions. Virginia Woolf’s early works employed infinitives to portray characters’ reasoning, decision-making, or introspection. The lower frequency of infinitives in the Later Works Corpus suggests a stylistic change in Virginia Woolf’s later works. This shift may indicate her exploration of sentence structures alternative to infinitives and a departure from explicitly expressing persuasion through infinitive constructions. In her later works, Virginia Woolf prioritized experimental narrative techniques and delved into subjective experiences and stream of consciousness. She also utilized different stylistic devices, such as free direct speech, to convey meaning and captivate readers, as in (5):

1. What is the meaning of life? That was all – a simple question; one that tended to close in on one with years. The great revelation had never come. The great revelation perhaps never did come. Instead there were little daily miracles, illuminations, matches struck unexpectedly in the dark. (To the Lighthouse)

In (5), Virginia Woolf portrays the character’s contemplation on the meaning of life. Through these introspective musings, she captures the character’s continuous pursuit of understanding and personal development. Virginia Woolf frequently grants direct access to characters’ inner thoughts, which enables readers to witness their thoughts, doubts, and reflections from a first-person perspective, avoiding constructions such as someone begins to do something. By delving into introspective moments, she explores the intricacies of characters’ decision-making processes and internal conflicts. This technique is characteristic of Woolf’s stream of consciousness writing.

4.3.1 By-Passives

The use of the passive voice, particularly the increased utilization of by-passives, can contribute to the abstract nature of a text. In passive voice constructions, the emphasis is shifted from the subject performing the action or event to the recipient or target of the action or event. This shift in emphasis creates a sense of distance or detachment, which enhances the abstract quality of the writing, as in (6):

1. She was struck by it herself, for she stopped writing and looked up; looked at Terence deep in the arm-chair, looked at the different pieces of furniture, at her bed in the corner, at the window-pane which showed the branches of a tree filled in with sky, heard the clock ticking, and was amazed at the gulf which lay between all that and her sheet of paper. (The Voyage Out)

In this construction, the use of the by-passive voice focuses on the occurrence of events rather than the person experiencing them. It directs the reader’s attention to the actions taking place, such as a character’s gaze being drawn to a particular object, rather than emphasizing the character’s own agency in these events. The focus is on the abstract notion of actions occurring, which could be likened to flowers being swayed by the wind, rather than on the specific details of who might be involved in those actions or the precise manner in which they are executed. However, in Virginia Woolf’s later works, a shift towards a less abstract style can be observed through various linguistic features, including a decrease in the use of by-passives. Therefore, a reduction in their usage indicates a move towards a more concrete and direct writing style. By employing these strategies and minimizing the use of by-passives, Woolf’s later works may exhibit a writing style that is more immediate, focused, and less abstract. The increased agency, clarity of responsibility, directness of expression, and attention to specific details contribute to a style that is more accessible to readers and emphasizes a concrete representation of events and actions, as in (7):

1. Now we have fallen through the tree-tops to the earth. The air no longer rolls its long, unhappy, purple waves over us. We touch earth; we tread ground. That is the close-clipped hedge of the ladies’ garden. There they walk at noon, with scissors, clipping roses. Now we are in the ringed wood with the wall round it. This is Elvedon. I have seen signposts at the cross-roads with one arm pointing “To Elvedon”. No one has been there. The ferns smell very strong, and there are red funguses growing beneath them. Now we wake the sleeping daws who have never seen a human form; now we tread on rotten oak apples, red with age and slippery. There is a ring of wall round this wood; nobody comes here. Listen! That is the flop of a giant toad in the undergrowth; that is the patter of some primeval fir-cone falling to rot among the ferns. (The Waves)

In this paragraph, Virginia Woolf departs from abstraction and adopts a more concrete and immediate writing style. Woolf consistently uses the active voice and in most of the cases explicitly identifies the agent of each action. This approach enhances agency and accountability, making the actions more tangible and directly associated with specific subjects. It improves clarity and immediacy in the narrative. The absence of by-passives contributes to the overall directness and immediacy of the writing style. By avoiding the distancing effect created by by-passives, Virginia Woolf provides a closer connection between the subjects and the actions they perform, resulting in a less abstract narrative.

4.3.2 Conjuncts

Conjuncts are connective words or phrases that join different elements within a sentence, such as alternatively, altogether, consequently, conversely. When conjuncts are employed, they often serve to provide additional information, establish logical connections, or express contrasting ideas. By using conjuncts, writers can offer more abstract and formal discourse, enhancing the overall non-abstractness of the text. The increased use of conjuncts in Early Works Corpus compared to Later Works Corpus suggests a greater emphasis on establishing connections, relationships, and concrete details within the narrative, as in (8):

1. Mr. Durrant knew him; and therefore blushed slightly, and said, awkwardly, something about being sure – looking at Mr. Plumer and hitching the right leg of his trouser as he spoke. (Jacob’s Room)

In this sentence, the conjunct therefore is used to link two verb phrases. The presence of the conjunct therefore in the sentence establishes a logical connection between the described actions and the ultimate outcome, highlighting the cause-and-effect relationship. It conveys a sense of finality and reinforces the notion that John’s exceptional performance is a direct consequence of his diligent studying, timely completion of assignments, and active participation in class. By utilizing the conjunct, the sentence maintains coherence, clarity, and persuasiveness by establishing a logical link between the stated actions and the anticipated result. In her early works, Virginia Woolf frequently employed conjuncts to articulate abstract concepts and explore their ramifications. However, this is not the case with Later Works Corpus. For example, (9) from Later Works Corpus lacks conjuncts. The ‘ring’, with its quivering motion, the ‘loop of light’, the ‘slab of pale yellow’, and the ‘white cluster of little creatures’, are described in a fragmented and disjointed manner. This style reflects Woolf’s experimental approach in her later works. The absence of conjuncts in this example emphasizes the abstraction and focuses on individual images and impressions rather than establishing explicit connections between them.

1. “I see a ring hanging above me. It quivers, hangs in a loop of light – a slab of pale yellow, a white cluster of little creatures.” (The Waves)

4.4.1 That Verb Complements

In this sentence, the verb complements with that provide a list of specific actions that the subject, she, was forced to undertake. By using a clause introduced by that, Woolf clearly delineates each action. This level of specificity enhances the explicitness of the sentence, leaving no room for ambiguity regarding the actions the subject had been forced to do. The directness of the language conveys a sense of clarity and straightforwardness, as in (10):

1. She had been forced to accept her lot, to marry St. John Hirst, to live with him in a small house in Manchester, to go with him to parties and dinners, and to see that he was comfortable when he came home at night. (The Voyage Out)

4.4.2 That Relative Clauses on Object Position

In example (11), the use of a relative clause with that in the object position contributes to the explicit expression of the character’s ‘theory.’ By employing this relative clause with that, Woolf presents a clear and direct statement of the theory, leaving no room for ambiguity.

1. She had a theory that it was only on this condition that life was worth living; that one should be one of the best, should be conscious of a fine organization, should move in the realm of light, and have ideas and friends. (The Voyage Out)

4.4.3 That Adjective Complements

In example (12), the adjective complement with that plays a crucial role in expressing the character’s conviction and sense of duty. The use of that introduces two clauses: one regarding his ability to mention Katharine’s name and the other emphasizing his belief that it was his duty to do so. By employing these that complements, Woolf presents the character’s thoughts directly and explicitly. The sentence becomes more focused and unequivocal, contributing to the overall directness of the writing style.

1. He had been convinced, as he walked back, that not only could he mention Katharine’s name, but that it was his duty to do so. (Jacob’s Room)

In examples (10), (11) and (12), the use of that complements and that relatives contributes to the explicitness and directness of the writing style in Woolf’s early works. Including these complements helps articulate specific actions, beliefs, or theories without ambiguity, creating clarity and straightforwardness in the narrative. This explicitness and directness enhance the reader’s understanding of the characters’ thoughts, motivations, and experiences. In Virginia Woolf’s later works, however, she employs structures alternative to that complements and that relatives such as premodifiers, -ing phrases, -ed phrases, and post adjectives for modification instead of using complete that clauses to convey the complete meaning of verbs, adjectives, and objects. These forms contribute to the unique style of her prose.

Overall, in line with Zwerdling’s (1986) observations on Woolf’s transition from traditional narratives to more fragmented structures, our analysis supports this evolution. Furthermore, our findings resonate with Beers (2019) discussion on the resistance to dominant narratives through multiple voices. Theoretically, our qualitative interpretations are framed within Humm’s (2002) work on the stream-of-consciousness technique which aligns with our observations on the use of fragments and symbolic language in Woolf’s later works.