A Study of Russian Artifacts in the Collection of Imperial Palace in the Qing Dynasty

2.1 Eight Hundred Volumes of Russian Books

In 1844, in response to a request from Russian missionaries stationed in Beijing, the Qing government bestowed over 800 volumes of Tibetan sacred texts, including the Tengyur and Kangyur, as gifts. Upon receiving the gifted books, Tsar Nicholas I of Russia wrote on them, “Very good. Tell me what these books are, and prepare gifts for return” (Успенский, 2011, p. 249). In return, the Russian government gifted over 357 different books comprising more than 800 volumes, marking the first known exchange of books between the Chinese and Russian imperial courts. The books from China were extensively utilized in Russia and were compiled into the monumental work Buddhist Library. In China, however, the books gifted by the Russian court were not adequately valued during the Qing Dynasty, and many of them were lost or destroyed.

As recorded in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng (朔方备乘) and Collected Works of Yangjizhai (养吉斋丛录), the books gifted in return to the Qing government covered a wide range of subjects, including literature, history, religion, astronomy, geography, mathematics, biology, geology, metallurgy, medicine, pharmacology, and agriculture, among others. Among them, maps and geographical books were particularly valued by the Qing government. In 1858, Emperor Xianfeng selected 41 volumes of cartographic and geographic books for reading and viewing in the imperial palace, while the rest were kept in the Fanglue Library (方略馆). The gifted books were initially kept in the Imperial Lifan Yuan (理藩院, Office for Relations with Principalities), according to the Palace Museum Archive. Subsequently, they were moved to the Library of the Grand Council of State in 1869 after some twists and turns. By the time of the cataloging conducted by Banduo (班铎) in 1885, out of the original 800-plus volumes, only 682 volumes remained. After the Boxer Rebellion and 1911 Revolution, just over 80 volumes survived and then came under the possession of the foreign affairs department of the Beiyang government. It was not until 1947 that Mr. Zhang Tiexian who worked at the Beijing Library discovered over 40 volumes of Russian books in a book market (Cheng & Li, 2007). According to the author’s investigation, among the over 40 volumes of Russian books currently acquired by the National Library in 1947, only 13 volumes can be confirmed to be from the gifts presented by Russia during the Daoguang period (1821–1850). For the convenience of reference, the list is compiled as follows:

1. The book titled Новейшие открытия, наблюдения и опыты врачей, сделанные в практической врачебной науке в последнее двадцатилетие (translated as Newest Discoveries, Observations, and Experiments in Practical Medicine in the Last Twenty Years) was authored by A. P. Neliubin, a Russian physician, and was published in 1840 in St. Petersburg. It is catalogued in the National Library under the foreign rare book number P93. It is also listed as item 187 in the Shuo Fang Bei Cheng bibliography, titled “New Compilation of Medical Laws”, consisting of four volumes, and as items 537–539 in the Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “New Compilation of Medical Arts”, consisting of three volumes. One copy is preserved in the National Library.

2. The book titled Учение о глазных болезнях (translated as Essentials of Ophthalmology) was authored by Johann Christian Jungken (1793–1875), a renowned professor of ophthalmology and a surgeon at the University of Berlin, Germany. Published in Moscow in 1841, it is catalogued as item 205 in the Shuo Fang Bei Cheng bibliography, titled “Ophthalmology” and as item 542 in the Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Essential Reading on Ophthalmology”.

3. The book titled Второе прибавление к описанию славяно-российских рукописей (translated as Second Supplement to the Description of Slavic-Russian Manuscripts) was published in 1827 and is catalogued as a foreign rare book with the number P79. It is listed as item 307 in the Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography, titled “Various Compilation of Literature”, and as item 252 in the Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Compilation of Slavic-Russian Literature”. The author of the book is Pavel Mikhailovich Stroev (1796–1876), a renowned historian, archaeologist, and academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

4. The book titled Прогулка с детьми по С. Петербургу и его окрестностям (translated as Strolling with Children in St. Petersburg and its Environs) is authored by Victor B. Urjanov, a Russian author, and was published in 1838. It is catalogued as a foreign rare book with the numbers P142 and P149. It is listed as item 105 in the Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography, titled “Traveling around the World with Children”, and as items 655–656 in the Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Traveling with Children in St. Petersburg”.

5. The book titled Анекдоты достопамятной войны россиян с французами (translated as Memorable Anecdotes of the War between Russians and French), was published in 1813–1814, with foreign rare book number P109. It is listed as item 85 in the Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography, titled “Anecdotes in Russia’s war against France” (or item 55, titled “Russian Strategies in the war against France”); and as items 71–74 in Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Records of Russo-French War”.

6. The book titled Начертание русской истории (translated as Introduction to Russian History), is authored by the Russian writer Mikhail Pogodin, and was published in 1837. It is catalogued as a foreign rare book number P90. It is listed as item 35 in the Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography, titled “Essential Reading on Russian History” (or item 32: “Russian National History”; item 37: “Russian History”; items 72–75: “Russian National History”), and as items 126–127 in Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Essential Reading on Russian Historical Sketches”.

7. The book titled Введение к изучению ботаники (translated as Introduction to Botanical Studies), is authored by the famous French and Swiss botanist and biologist Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle, and was published in 1837. It is catalogued as a foreign rare book number item P118. It is listed as item 177 in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography, titled “Records of Plants” (or items 570–571: “Complete Compilation of Plants”), and as item 408 in Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Tracing the Origins of Botany”.

8. The book titled Описание Санкт-Петербурга и уездных городов С.-Петербургской губернии (translated as Description of St. Petersburg and County Towns in St. Petersburg Province), is authored by the Russian writer Ivan Pushkarev, and was published in 1839. It is catalogued as a foreign rare book number item P119. It is listed as item 340 in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography, titled “Illustrated Descriptions of St. Petersburg and Other Places”, and as items 322–324 in Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Chronicles of St. Petersburg”.

9. The book titled Картинная галерея, или Систематическое собрание рисунков по всем отрасиям чеиовеческих познаний (translated as Gallery of Paintings or Systematic Collection of Drawings on Various Branches of Human Knowledge), was published in 1842. It is catalogued as a foreign rare book number item P183. It is listed as item 112 in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography, titled “Illustrated Collection” (or item 110, titled “Illustrated Records of Geographical Figures of the World”), and as items 333–337 in Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Brief Illustrated Descriptions of Natural History” (or item 681: “Comprehensive Considerations of Things”).

10. The book titled Путешествие в Южный океан и в Берингов пролив для отыскания северо-восточного морского прохода (translated as Travels to the South Ocean and the Bering Strait for the Search of the Northeast Passage, Volume 2) was written by Otto Kotzebue (1788–1846) and published in 1821. It is catalogued as a foreign rare book with item number P180. It is listed as item 95 in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography, titled “Account of Travels to the South Ocean” (or item 106: “Survey of the South Ocean”; item 102: “Four Voyages to the Northern Seas”); and as item 332 in Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Account of Four Voyages to the Arctic Ocean”.

11. The book titled Систематический свод существующих законов Pоссийской империи. Право гражданское (translated as Systematic Compilation of Existing Laws of the Russian Empire. Civil Law, Volume 2, Parts 1 and 3) was published in 1817–1818. It is catalogued as a foreign rare book with item number P172. It is listed as item 6 in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography, titled “Compilation of Russian Statutes”, and as items 144-146 and 149 in Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Compilation of Regulations”.

12. The book titled Свод законов Российской империи, повелением государя императора Николая Павловича составленный (translated as Compilation of Laws of the Russian Empire by Decree of Emperor Nicholas Pavlovich) was published in 1842. It is catalogued as a foreign rare book with item number P24. It is listed as item 1 in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography, titled “General Code of Laws of Russia”; and as items 148–150 in Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Compilation of Regulations”.

13. The book titled Новый словотолкователь (translated as New Explanatory Dictionary, Volumes 2 and 3) was written by Nikolai Yanovsky (1764–1826) and published in 1804. It is catalogued as a foreign rare book with item numbers P111–112. It is listed as item 257 (or 266) in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography, titled “New Book of Russian Word Meanings”; and as items 1–6 in Banduo’s bibliographic catalog, titled “Hanlin Dictionary”.

All the above-mentioned books bear the seal of “北京图书馆藏书 (Beijing Library Collection)” in Chinese and “National Library of Peiping, Peiping, China” in English.

In addition, Zhang Tiexian’s collection includes four volumes (Zhang, 1958), for which a Russian catalog is not provided. The details are presented as follows:

1. Calculus, one volume, No. 447 in Banduo’s catalog, No. 216 in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography. The book was published by the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1831. The original work is authored by the French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy, and translated by Russian mathematician Viktor Bunyakovsky (1804–1864).

2. Sunrise and Sunset Timetable, one volume, No. 457 in Banduo’s catalog, No. 236 in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography. The book was published in 1825 in Kharkiv, and authored by F. I. Baykov.

3. Course on Mineralogy, one volume, No. 588 in Banduo’s catalog, No.166 in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography. The original work is published in 1843 in St. Petersburg.

4. A Course in Farming with an Appendix to Field Husbandry, one volume, No. 396 in Banduo’s catalog, No. 146 in Shuo Fang Bei Cheng’s bibliography. The book was authored by agronomist S. M. Usov (1796–1859), and published in St. Petersburg in 1837, 312 pages. The book made significant contributions to the popularization of agricultural knowledge.

The National Museum of China also houses a batch of books that were transferred from the Imperial Palace. The details are recorded as follows:

1. On the Record of the Turkish War (Описание Турецкой войны), Volumes 1 & 2, written by A. P. Mikhaylovsky-Danilevsky; Foreign Language Book item: 故 367: 1, 367: 2; Rare Book item: 善 129. St. Petersburg, 1843.

2. A Collection of Exemplary Drawings for Exercises in Drawing Mountains (Собрание образцовых чертежей для упражнения в черчении гор); Foreign Language Book item: 故 360; Rare Book item: 善 686. St. Petersburg, 1827.

3. Guide for Trigonometric Survey Calculations (Руководство для исчислений тригонометрической съемки), written by F. F. Shubert; Foreign Language Book item 故 358; Rare Book item 善 685. The General Staff Military Printing House, St. Petersburg, 1826.

4. Atlas of Historical Genealogical Chronological Geography (Исторический, генеалогический, хронологический, географический атлас), with only 68 remaining pages; Foreign Language Book item: 故 371; Rare Book item: 善 135. The Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences, 1809.

5. World Panorama (Всемирная панорама), Foreign Language Book item: 故 364; Rare Book item: 善 684. Riga, 1835.

6. Ancient World Atlas (Атлас Древнего мира), with only seven out of 18 remaining maps in the preface and index; Foreign Language Book item: 故 355; Rare Book item: 善 131. St. Petersburg, 1843.

7. Eastern Hemisphere and Western Hemisphere Maps (Восточное полушарие и западное полушарие). Foreign Language Book item: 故 372; Rare Book item: 善 691. 1831.

8. Picture Gallery: Vol. 1. Natural History; Vol. 3. Architecture (Картинная галерея: отделение первое – естествознание / отделение третье – архитектура). Foreign Language Book item: 故 356: 1, 故 356: 2; Rare Book item: 善 690. St. Petersburg, 1838–1839.

9. A Collection of Animal Images (Собрание изображений животных), 18 color plates of animal images. Foreign Language Book item: 故 361; Rare Book item: 善 689. Moscow, 1831.

10. Constantinople and the Turks (Vol. 2) (Константинополь и турки. Часть вторая), including 161 pages of content, two pages of index, 48 illustrations with one missing frontispiece illustration, and one map. Foreign Language Book item: 故 363; Rare Book item: 善 127. St. Petersburg, 1843.

11. Greece (Греция), authored by Johann Anton Friedrich de la Croix, including 30 pages of text and 30 pages of illustrations. Foreign Language Book item: 故 362; Rare Book item: 善 128. Riga, 1837.

12. Emperor Peter the Great (Император Петр Первый), 112 pages with 28 portrait illustrations. Foreign Language Book item: 故 357; Rare Book item: 善 688. Moscow, 1837.

13. Map of Europe With Border Parts of Asia and Africa (Карта Европы с пограничными частями Азии и Африки), with a cover sleeve. Foreign Language Book item: 故 370; Rare Book item: 善 136. Imperial Russian Military Topographic Depot, 1821.

14. Atlas of the Russian Empire (Атлас Российской Империи), including full 64 pages of illustrations but incomplete cover page. Foreign Language Book item: 故 369; Rare Book item: 善 137. Imperial Russian Military Topographic Depot, 1838.

15. The Russian Empire in Europe (Российская Империя в Европе), including one illustration with a cover sleeve. Foreign Language Book item: 故 373; Rare Book item: 善 132. St. Petersburg, 1841.

16. Industrial Map of European Russia (Карта промышленности Европейской России), including a cover sleeve. Foreign Language Book item: 故 374; Rare Book item: 善 133. Moscow, 1841, color lithograph in Russian.

17. World Maps, Vols. 1 and 2 (Картины света. Часть 1, 2), including 228 pages with four pages of index. Foreign Language Book item: 故 365; Rare Book item: 善 134. Moscow, 1836.

18. Economic Botany—Descriptions and Pictures of Plants Beneficial or Harmful to Humans (Хозяйственная ботаника заключающая в себе описания и изображения полезных и вредных для человека растений), authored by N. P. Shcheglov, two volumes, including 450 pages and an additional 33 pages of illustrations index in Vol. 1, and 356 pages and an additional 29 pages of illustrations index in Vol. 2, with only a few remaining illustrations. Foreign Language Book item: 故 366: 1, 故 366: 2; Rare Book item: 善 687. 1828.

19. Atlas of Krusenstern’s Voyage (Атлас к путешествию Крузенштерна), including 100 engraved maps and three large fold-out maps. Foreign Language Book item: 故 368; Rare Book item: 善 692. St. Petersburg, 1813, lead-printed.

20. Switzerland (Швейцария), including 100 pages of text with 24 pages of illustrations and annexes. Foreign Language Book item: 故 359; Rare Book item: 善 130. 1837.

Based on the above, it can be seen that the majority of the books in the collection of the National Museum were among the “Atlases and Geographical Illustrations” selectively read by Emperor Xianfeng.

In summary, there are currently 13 volumes in the collection of the Ancient Books Department of the National Library of China, 20 pieces/volumes in the National Museum of China, and four volumes in Zhang Tiexian’s collection, totaling 37 volumes/pieces, which are the remaining portion of the originally discovered 800 volumes of gifted books. These books reflect the cutting-edge works in various fields of Europe and Russia at that time. The gifted books initially attracted attention from the intellectual community, and after the translation of the book list, literati and officials eagerly copied them, seemingly refreshing the minds of people in the imperial court and civil society. And there has always been advocacies for translation. In the 11th year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1885), the censor Zhao Erxun (赵尔巽) suggested to the Grand Council that the gifted books be translated into Chinese and printed with engraved plates by the Tongwen Guan (同文馆). Yet the then chief examiner of the Tongwen Guan, the American missionary W. A. P. Martin, held a negative opinion. The Grand Council eventually decided that the old books from Russia were not as comprehensive and influential as the new books from Britain, Germany, and France, so there was no need for translation. Hence, the Qing government did not adopt the suggestion for translation and did not attach enough importance to the gifted books. Prior to the Opium War, Russia’s expansion in China was still in the exploratory stage, and the translation of these books had significant implications for the development of various fields in China at that time. After the Second Opium War, with a deeper understanding of China, Russia’s expansion became more audacious. The first official book exchange between China and Russia undoubtedly occurred at this historical juncture.

2.2 The Chinese Version of Journey to the East of His Imperial Highness the Tsesarevich 1890–1891

The Chinese version of Путешествие на Восток Его Императорского Высочества Наследника Цесаревича 1890–1891 is translated as “皇太子东游记 1890–1891” (Journey to the East of His Imperial Highness the Tsesarevich 1890–1891, hereinafter referred to as Journey to the East). The book describes the unprecedented educational journey from 1890 to 1891 of the last Tsar of the Russian Empire, Nicholas II Alexandrovich (1868–1918) during his time as the Tsesarevich. The tradition of the “educational journey” for Tsesareviches dates back to the time of Peter the Great. This journey lasted for 9 months and included visits to Greece, Egypt, India, Thailand, Burma (now Myanmar), China, Japan, and other countries, which helped to strengthen the diplomatic relations between the Russian Empire and other countries. The author of the book is Esper Esperovich Ukhtomsky (Эспер Эсперович Ухтомский). In Qing dynasty literature, he was also referred to as “邬多穆斯基”, “王爵吴克托穆斯基”, “吴王”, “吴克托”, “乌克托木斯基”, “乌和他木斯科”, “乌赫唐斯基”, and other names, depending on different translation. He was commissioned to write this account, in which he recorded the receptions, geography, military, and historical and cultural aspects of the countries visited during the journey.

The book was published over a period of six years (1893–1898) in deluxe and regular editions, and it was available in five languages: Russian, English, German, French, and Chinese. The Russian edition was first published in 1893 under the title Journey to the East of His Imperial Highness the Tsesarevich 1890–1891, but after the coronation of Nicholas II in 1894, the title was changed to Путешествие Государя Императора Николая II на Восток (в 1890–1891), translated as Journey of the Tsar Nicholas II to the East (1890–1891). In 1897, an official version was published, which was used as an official textbook and distributed throughout the country. The Chinese version was published in 1898 in a print run of three volumes. Unlike the Russian edition, the Chinese version only covers his travels and experiences in China, with little mention of other countries.

Under the commission of the Russian Minister Plenipotentiary to China M. N. Giers (М.Н. Гирс, 1856–1932), D. D. Pokotilov (Д.Д. Покотилов), the then official of the Russian Ministry of Finance, presented to the Emperor and Empress of the Qing Dynasty on September 30, 1899 (Схиммельпеннинк ван дер Ойе, 2009). For this reason, Pokotilov was summoned and honored by Empress Dowager Cixi and Emperor Guangxu (Хохлов, 1999). After extensive research, the author finally found, in the Vol. 4 of the Third Compilation of “Report on the Inventory of Forbidden City Collections” (故宫物品点查报告), two copies of Journey to the East itemized 2628, which corroborates the information in the above-mentioned literature. Due to the transfer of cultural relics and other reasons, these two books were found in the Palace Museum Library and Peking University, respectively. In addition to the two copies presented to the Qing imperial court, a third copy of the Chinese version was printed slightly later and ordered by the Russian Tsar to be kept in the Imperial Library of Russia. In 2018, Dr. Anastasia Komolova from the Kremlin Museum found the third copy in the Russian National Library (formerly the Imperial Library of Russia). So far, all three Chinese versions have been located.

The three copies appear to be consistent in the cover and content, with the only difference being that original covers sleeves of the two copies in China are presumably lost. The cover of the books is exceptionally exquisite, with embossed, gilded, rectangular gold-framed and decorative floral patterns, the design of which is similar to the Qing Dynasty enamel cloisonné. The paper used in the inside pages is similar to modern copperplate paper, with lead printing and meticulous binding. There are 111 pages of text in Chinese, totaling 18,955 Chinese characters, without page numbers. The calligraphy of the Chinese text is elegant and beautiful, showing a deep understanding of Chinese calligraphy. There are 479 illustrations (some in color) in the book, including photographs, engravings, lithographs, and watercolor paintings. The author of the watercolor paintings is N. N. Karazin (Н.Н. Каразин, 1842–1908), a distinguished painter, anthropologist, writer, geographer, traveler, and war correspondent, whose grandfather was the founder of Kharkiv University. The photographs were taken by photographer Vladimir Dmitrievich Mendeleev (Владимир Дмитриевич Менделеев, 1865–1898), who was the eldest son of the famous Russian chemist D. I. Mendeleev. After his trip, V. D. Mendeleev wrote letters to his father praising the amiable character of the Tsesarevich. The photos taken on this trip were included in this book by Ukhtomsky. There were originally more than 200 photos, which are now kept in the National Library of Russia. The cover and title page of the Chinese version contain the following information: book title, “俄太子东游记”; the author, “王爵吴克托穆斯基”; the publisher, “德来泽城璞洛喀次书坊藏板”; publication year, “光绪戊戌年” (1898).

The Chinese version of Journey to the East is distinct from versions in other languages. Firstly, the book depicts the firsthand experiences of the Tsesarevich during the Qing Dynasty, vividly showcasing a direct historical witness to the exchanges between the Chinese and Russian courts during the Qing Dynasty. Secondly, the Chinese version was commissioned by the Russian Tsar and only printed in three copies, whose imperial-level design reflects exceptional value. Thirdly, the book was written by the Prince Esper Ukhtomsky, a prominent Orientalist of the Russian Empire, and was transcribed by a Chinese calligrapher and printed in Leipzig, Germany. The book covers important figures in China and Russia, and touches upon ethnology, geography, and natural resources, making it an important cultural heritage of the Chinese-Russian exchange.

In recent years, other cultural relics related to the visit of the Russian Tsesarevich to China have also been discovered. The Collected Poems of Zhang Zhidong (张之洞诗文集) contains two poems describing the grand reception of the Tsesarevich. One poem, titled “Book Gifting to the Tsesarevich Visiting Hankou in the Qianchuan Pavilion” (太子来游汉口享燕晴川阁索书即席奉赠), goes:

Flying wheels from the west have crossed the sea

Carrying auspicious bells to compare with the Decheng

On a sunny day, the Qingchuan Pavilion unfurls its splendid curtains

As flowers bloom and rainbow flags welcome the Han River

Magnificent views of the three territories await the bold adventurer

As the happy union of two countries is celebrated with joy

From this day on, the grand achievements are recorded and spread

As the rivers and skies clear for thousands of miles (Zhang, 1928, p. 256)

Another poem titled “The Young Companionship of the Greek and Russian Princes” (希腊世子俄太子之戚, 来同游者, 年甚少), goes:

On high spirits they ride, plucking fragrant grass on Chu’s land

Banners and flags soaring high, in the sea and sky’s command

Amidst singing parrots by the spring, they row beneath the night’s light

Together drinking wine, by the water’s edge so bright.

Men of both countries connect, hearts bound as one

Women in silks, of which the colors bright

But like Sima of Southern Han’s age, I feel

About, I yearn and appeal (Zhang, 1928, p. 256)

These poems vividly depict the cultural exchange between China and Russia during the Qing Dynasty, and the Qianchuan Pavilion gained more fame for hosting the Russian Tsesarevich. Zhang Zhidong’s handwritten version of the poem “Book Gifting to the Tsesarevich Visiting Hankou in the Qianchuan Pavilion” was once collected by Qian Zhongshu and Yang Jiang, and was donated to the National Museum of China before Yang Jiang passed away, adding fresh materials to the reenactment of the Russian Tsesarevich’s trip.

In commemoration of his journey, in 1891, Tsar Alexander III commissioned the jewelry company “Fabergé” (Фаберже) to create the “Azov Commemorative Egg”, which was modeled after the half-armored ship named “Azov” on which the Tsesarevich had traveled. This was the seventh imperial egg created in Russia. Its delicate craftsmanship was embodied in every detail, including the ship’s meticulously replicated equipment, the platinum boat, anchor and chain, spider-web-like gold wire mast, and tiny letters spelling of Azov. The Egg is currently housed in the Moscow Kremlin Museum, serving as a memento of the Tsesarevich’s journey to the East and showcasing the artistic achievements of Russia.

Unfortunately, despite its promotion, Tsar Nicholas II’s journey to the East did not lead to a change in Russia’s aggressively expansionistic policies towards China after his ascension to the throne. The Chinese version of the book was only printed in three copies, while the English, French, and German versions were openly distributed, highlighting an uneven attitude towards different countries.