The Quiet Quote: Thoughts on Quotation Norms and Plagiarism in the Judeo-Arabic Culture of the High and Late Middle Ages
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Neri Y. Ariel
Abstract
In this paper, I strive to emphasize the phenomenology of quotation norms among Medieval Jewish scholars in an Islamicate context. The examined texts shed new light on the theme of plagiarism. The article ponders a fascinating connection raised in Jewish tradition between the legal normativity of quotation and the eschatological doctrine of deliverance. This research is both philological and comparative and stands at the intersection between law, literature, and philosophy. The last parts of the article show that the concept of plagiarism is a later phenomenon and that the discourse in this regard is modern by all means. It is connected with concepts such as intellectual property, which is mostly grounded in human rights discourse. In the appendix, I show the reductio ad absurdum of this phenomenon in modern times and address the heightened complexity of the issue in the technological era, with the promotion and growing influence of artificial intelligence.
Funding source: Marie Skłodowska-Curie Award
Award Identifier / Grant number: Grant agreement No. 945298
Acknowledgements
This article is part of my research for my second PhD/habilitation at the Faculty of Law, Bar-Ilan University, entitled “The Laws of Justice in Judgment: A Comparative Study of Mediaeval Adjudication Between Judaism and Islam.” This research is being pursued in the Romi and Esther Tager Program for Jewish and Comparative Law. I would like to express my sincere thanks to my academic advisor, Rabbi Prof. Itzhak Brand. I would also like to acknowledge the valuable comments of the anonymous reviewers, which significantly contributed to the publication. I am immensely grateful to the organizers, Dr. Nicola Kramp-Seidel, Dr. Luca Rizzo, and Dr. Hakki Arslan, of the Rhetorical Strategies in Jewish and Islamic Legislative Texts workshop for their generous invitation and for affording me the opportunity to present my research. Additionally, I would like to extend my thanks to Dr. Ernst Aichinger (BMEIA, Vienna and New York), Rabbi Isser Klonsky (chief rabbi of Giv’at Mordechai, Jerusalem), Dr. Rafael Suter (Asiatische Studien – Études Asiatiques, Universität Zürich), Ariel Weinreich and the anonymous peer-reviewers, who read early drafts of this paper and helped promote the research. Academic research can have two different approaches. The first is to present essays at the conclusion of research to summarize or report progress made. In contrast, the second is a ‘brainstorming research’ approach that takes place at the start of a project to open conversation and contribute to the field of research. My paper is part of the latter and part of a long-term project on Judeo-Islamic adjudication. I am honored and delighted to be able to share my evolving views with the public.
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Research funding: This research has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 945298-ParisRegionFP, as part of the Paris Region Fellowship Program supported by the Paris Region.
Appendix: On paradoxical quotation striving in the computerized era
The short reflections in this section correspond to phenomena mentioned in the paper; as libraries, archives and other human intellectual activities now go through technologized processes, the meaning of attributing a statement or teaching to its original speaker is perhaps losing its value. As an epilogue, I quote here from a book named after the main theme of this paper, Kol ha-ʾOmer Davar be-Shem Omro “whoever says a matter in the name of the one who said it”, which was published in an ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) circle (Image 2):
The title page of a book by this name: Kol ha-ʾOmer Davar be-Shem Omro, “Whoever says a matter in the name of the one who said it.”
At the bottom of the front page, the author even makes a traditional play with the letters comprising this statement, so that the year is also encoded within it. Normally, this is done to ascertain when the book was written, and makes the reader think about the text; the place of printing, Jerusalem, is known, and the numerical value in gematria of the enlarged bold letters is 765, as mentioned also in the approbation, which corresponds to the secular year 2005.
The author of this book doesn’t seem to be taking responsibility for the content; rather, he sees himself as more of a collector or compiler. This is a common practice in this tradition, where authors wish to make it clear that they are not introducing anything new, and that everything has already been said, going all the way back to Moses on Mount Sinai.[69] At first glance, it may seem ridiculous that someone would dedicate so much effort to compile and memorize all the places in the Bavli which attribute any single statement to someone. However, this is in line with the traditionalist view which emphasizes the importance of being part of the transmitters who bring deliverance to the world. The book includes an approbation from the current Tolner Rebbe of the Jerusalem branch of this Hasidic movement, who, as an expression of modesty, does not disclose any information about himself except that he is descended from the past Tolner Rebbe, and as the saying goes, “standing on the shoulders of giants (Image 3).”
The haskama letter, or approbation, for the above-mentioned book.
In an era where computers are not only seen as tools to find things that are deemed abominable according to halakhah, but also as replacements for belief and humanity, the wisdom behind them is no longer human. There is no place for real values, as everything is relative and individual. This has resulted in the reverse of what was initially intended (emblemized by the proverb ha-golem qam ʿal yotzro, “the golem rises against its maker”). The motivation behind this approbation is thus clear: computers cannot replace the personal connection to Torah, as doing so would make humanity redundant; they are viewed as a deep threat and a dangerous tool that is ultimately redundant itself. Therefore, according this view, it is imperative that we remain true to values and not rely solely on computers to learn and grow in knowledge of Torah and mitzvot.
The approbation of this highly technical book, with its 486 pages of who said what in the name of whom and in the Bavli only, is based on the main argument that it was not made by computer. The ʿamal torah, or hard labor invested in the Torah, to bring the memra in the name of the one who said it in the Talmud, without using any technological help, makes the book purely human (and therefore, I add: almost divine). The author is proud of his accomplishment without relying on technology, which sentiment is repeated in the warning that is formulated as a respectful request on behalf of the compiler, and is also found in the approbation preceding the book, praising the author for not relying on technological devices, achievements, or science, but rather by immersing himself in the world of the Talmud.
However, although it is not a total exception, there is a dispute among adherents of the same circle to what extent the usage of technological tools should be made in favor of holy studies. Other parts of the ultra-Orthodox community do not accept such an attitude. The computer is increasingly becoming part of the yeshiva world of today, and Otzar ha-Ḥokhmah, which is the hitherto greatest database of sifrei qodesh “holy books”, was invented by an ultra-Orthodox group of avrekhim who are also knowledgeable in the world of IT. More and more, these innovations are becoming the center of Torah learning for the mainstream, and the plagiarism problem is no longer only academic, but also presents new challenges for the rabbinic world to withstand. Does AI/GPT (and especially version 4 and up) have intellectual property of its own that legally and halakhically obligate the user to implement the doctrine of plagiarism towards it? Is mentioning the name of the author of a statement really relevant in a world where everything is accessible and there is an increasing infusion of mass media information? Does it really bring deliverance to the world, or just too many pages to fill, that take up space (physical or digital) and are of no use to anyone anymore? These are questions that must be raised for further investigation, introspection and reflection, however they cannot be fully answered in one humble paper.
It is interesting to note that the main focus of the author is exclusively the ‘book of books’ of Judaism (excluding the Bible, of course), namely, the Talmud, and more specifically, the Babylonian Talmud. Consequently, might one not wonder why the author includes, in the introduction to his book, statements from the Yerushalmi in order to support his arguments? The answer is quite clear: according to traditionalists, since the Talmud itself and especially through its reception by the Geonim, the Palestinian Talmud serves as a tool to better understand the Babylonian Talmud. Anything said elsewhere is either irrelevant or should be seen as an interpretation of what is written in the Babylonian Talmud. This could be viewed with either a sense of humor, agony, or bitterness – a deep enslavement and subordination to the Babylonian dynasty and the exclusivity of traditionalist views. Nonetheless, I hope that research may bring some salvation and do justice to lesser known and less authoritative sources, such as those discussed above in this paper. This is only the beginning of a fascinating journey, not its end, but I hope it will succeed in revealing something about the connection between textual traditions and the reception of the concept of deliverance in rabbinic sources.
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Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Editorial
- Intertextuality, Transtextuality, and Rewriting in the Jewish, Christian and Islamic Literary and Legal Traditions: Editorial
- Aufsätze – Articles – Articles
- Quranic Law and Its ‘Biblical’ Intertexts
- The Use of Islamic Legal Discourse in Literature: How Did Premodern Arab Critics Classify and Analyze Legal Intertextuality?
- Testimony, Lying and Calumny at the Interface of Islamic Law and Arabic Poetry
- An Appalled Ghost Guiding Readers Across Semiotic Fault Lines: The Contribution of Literature to the Appreciation of Legal Change
- General Remarks on Plagiarism and Authorship in Islamic Religious Texts and the Case of The Special Qualities of Friday by Zayn al-Dīn al-ʿĀmilī (d. 965/1558)
- Medieval Rabbinic Literature Seen in a New Light: The Sources of Yalkut Shimoni on the Book of the Twelve Prophets
- Ibn al-Ṭayyib’s Fiqh al-Naṣrāniyya
- The Quiet Quote: Thoughts on Quotation Norms and Plagiarism in the Judeo-Arabic Culture of the High and Late Middle Ages
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- Editorial
- Intertextuality, Transtextuality, and Rewriting in the Jewish, Christian and Islamic Literary and Legal Traditions: Editorial
- Aufsätze – Articles – Articles
- Quranic Law and Its ‘Biblical’ Intertexts
- The Use of Islamic Legal Discourse in Literature: How Did Premodern Arab Critics Classify and Analyze Legal Intertextuality?
- Testimony, Lying and Calumny at the Interface of Islamic Law and Arabic Poetry
- An Appalled Ghost Guiding Readers Across Semiotic Fault Lines: The Contribution of Literature to the Appreciation of Legal Change
- General Remarks on Plagiarism and Authorship in Islamic Religious Texts and the Case of The Special Qualities of Friday by Zayn al-Dīn al-ʿĀmilī (d. 965/1558)
- Medieval Rabbinic Literature Seen in a New Light: The Sources of Yalkut Shimoni on the Book of the Twelve Prophets
- Ibn al-Ṭayyib’s Fiqh al-Naṣrāniyya
- The Quiet Quote: Thoughts on Quotation Norms and Plagiarism in the Judeo-Arabic Culture of the High and Late Middle Ages
