Perelman’s phenomenology of rhetoric: Foucault contests Chomsky’s complaint about media communicology in the age of Trump polemic

Richard L. Lanigan

doi:10.1515/sem-2018-0030

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Perelman’s phenomenology of rhetoric: Foucault contests Chomsky’s complaint about media communicology in the age of Trump polemic

Richard L. Lanigan

Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 31. Mai 2019

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Aus der Zeitschrift Semiotica Band 2019 Heft 229

Abstract

The analysis explores the main arguments of Noam Chomsky’s short book, Media Control that also reprints the monograph “The Journalist from Mars: How the ‘War on Terror’ Should Be Reported.” The problematic is Aristotelian rhetoric and Enlightenment rationality (justice) in civic discourse (Lógos) as compared to the thematic of dialogic reasonableness (Eulógos). Chomsky’s assumption of, and critique of, “old rhetoric” [Aristotle’s rhētorikḗ] is followed by a discussion of Chiam Perelman’s “new rhetoric” [presocratic poiētikḗ / epideiktikos / gērys] and his “incarnate adherence” (giving voice to) concept of the Universal Audience as a function of Epideictic argumentation. This is also a critique of Stephen Toulman’s neo-Aristotelian model of rhetorical “warrant” and its connection to Charles S. Peirce’s normative semiotic of the “argument cycle.” Heidegger’s and Lakoff’s concept of discourse framing is associated with Michel Foucault’s rhetoric concept of an ethic of social discourse for the common good (parrhesia) in the age of Umberto Eco’s hyperreality media that displays Baudrillard’s simulacra, such as Donald Trump.

Keywords: communicology; Chomsky; epideictic; Foucault; hyperreality; media; rhetoric; simulacra

Acknowledgements

The present paper was presented first as “Noam Chomsky’s Complaint About Media Communicology,” The Society for Phenomenology and Media, 11th Annual Conference: “Philosophy, Politics, and the Media,” Washington, DC, 26–February 28, 2009. A second draft was presented at The 2nd Biennial Philosophy of Communication Conference, Department of Communication & Rhetorical Studies, Duquesne University, Power Conference Center, Pittsburgh, PA, 3–June 5, 2015. I want express my appreciation for the constructive dialogue from all the audiences for the present paper, and, all those who, over many years, have offered constructive comment on my axiological approach to rhetorical theory, especially Noam Chomsky, Jürgen Habermas, Paul Ricoeur, and Calvin O. Schrag. Last, I want to note my deep appreciation for the important theoretical work on Rhetoric (in the tradition of Group Mu and Phenomenology) by my friend and colleague Prof. Göran Sonesson, Centre for Cognitive Semiotics, Department of Semiotics, Lund University, Sweden; and, in the tradition of Roman Jakobson’s “rhetorical linguistics” to my colleague and friend, Michael Shapiro.

Appendix

VOICE [G. gērys: sound to give voice as utterance and inscription]. Voice [inflection; verb tense] codes Active [Ενεργητική], Middle [Μέση], Passive [Παθητική] temporal agency. A key point is that middle voice usually specifies that the agent causing the action is oneself. Greimas and Courtés (1982 [1979]: 39) note in their entry for “Communication” that human communication operates “at the semantic level, as a discourse with two, or several, voices.” A good general reference source is Peters (1967). Notes that “code” is an embodied binary analogue apposition relation of Encode (Expression) and Decode (Presentation), both which are a consciousness of noetic (Reality) understanding, but mean or signify (stand in place of) phenomena that are noematic (Actuality). For this Handchart, the three relevant languages of Voice are:
1. Greek ontology assigns a voice to each of the seven categories (Ónoma through Graphikos) among others, however they were systematized into four discrete categories by the Medieval Scholastics as the Trivium. For oral expression, the progressive Rhetoric categories: Articulation, Judgment, Generalization, and Concept. For perception, the Logic or Hermeneutic categories: Anagogical, Moral (Tropological), Allegorical, and Literal (see Lanigan 1992: 89, 167). For written expression, the Grammar categories had the signifying modes: absolutes and respectivus (for syntax) and essentials (general and specific) and accidentalis to generate the parts of speech/language (used by Roman Jakobson, see Kristeva (1989 [1981]: 140, 340 n.3)). Note that Latin terms are transliterated from Greek.
2. English has a voice agency of First Person (“I”), Second Person (“Me”), Third Person (“You”). The third person is problematic as the Wordspatially Names both a private and public “you” [which used to be marked “Thee” and “Thou” as a solution to the referential ambiguity]. The current ambiguity of “you” is a preferred usage for English speakers (It offers the rhetorical option: “I did not mean You!”). Some languages (e.g. Algonquin) have a Fourth Person to solve this problem, as “Thee” and “Thou” used to work as a Case function in English.
3. French has a similar temporal issue that occurs with Passive Voice where there are two “pasts” that cannot be translated (e.g. into English) properly because they are Case specific in Speech ( = temporality), but not in Writing (spatiality). The ambiguity of the Past is resolved in French by having a verb tense for (1) the Public Narrative of History (passé défini) that suggests the known past (passé simple) which is formal writing [Historicity = past voice function] and then (2) there is the Personal Narrative of a Story (passé composé) which is an action completed at the time of speaking [Narrativity = middle voice function], but also references an unknown time of occurrence in the past. The current ambiguity of “passé composé” (two Voices) is a preferred usage for French speakers, who may or may not be responsible for what has happened!
This Handchart is designed to assist in understanding Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s use of Greek in “Eye and Mind” (1964: 159–190). The Handchart also applies to Merleau-Ponty’s Phenomenology of Perception (1962 [1945]) where terms like “magical” are badly misunderstood in the English translation; unfortunately, such issues are not covered by any translator’s notes.
Greek Discourse:
1. Plato’s Sophist consists of the progression of (1) Rhetoric [Poetic], (2) Sophistic, (3) Maieutic, and (4) Dialectic. Pre-Socratic ontology specified that all objects have being and have voice in the world, hence things like drinking cups where inscribed on the top edge with the message “I Greet You.”
  1. Rhetoric is the contest (agon) of Ónoma and Magikos: Answers that take (capta) or give (data) Questions.
    [Metaphor: series and substitution as context or referent]
  2. Sophistic is the contest (agon) of Mythos and Mystos: Answers that take (capta) or give (data) Answers.
    [Metonymy: regularity and similarity as context or referent]
  3. Maieutic is the contest (agon) of Mystos and Nous: Questions that take (capta) or give (data) Answers.
    [Simile, Irony: event and selection as context or referent]
  4. Dialectic is the contest (agon) of Logos and Graphikos: Questions that take (capta) or give (data)
    Questions. [Synecdoche: code and existence as context or referent]
    For explication and a quadrilateral diagram of the Discourse Subject, see Lanigan (1992: 94).
2. Aristotle’s De Communicatione (more commonly translated as De Interpretatione) also introduces the voice distinctions among Logic, Rhetoric, and Grammar. The appropriate translation as “Communication” was proposed by Waitz (1844). An excellent introduction to Aristotle’s On Communication view of Greek discourse is Kasabova and Marinov (2013).
Émile Benveniste’s explication of the double voice (narrativity [auto-reference] and historicity [hetero-reference]) in the French verb, see Lanigan (2012). In French, the use of passé composé is a rhetorical device (narrativity) for dialectical effect (unknown historicity); see note 10 below. Greimas and Courtés (1982 [1979]: 143) use the neologism “hi / story” to accommodate this issue.
Contrary to “natural attitude” belief, perspective is located in the Eye, not in Nature observed (Horizon). An explication in simple, clear language is Ellenberg (2014: 261–266). The basis of Husserl’s ēpochē. In the cultural context, see Clifford (1988).
Perspective (visual, graphic) ranges from Non-Linear [no parallel lines, e.g. a view of mountains] (0-Point) to Linear (1-, 2-, 3-Point) to Curvilinear (4, 5, 6-Point); these are metatheoretical positions in semiotic models of communication. For a discussion, see Lanigan (1988: 184–193).
“Point” means “vanishing point” and assumes the point is a horizontal line called the spatial “horizon” (in the West = isometric perspective; eye movement is bottom left [foreground] up to top right [background]), or alternatively, the point is a diagonal line called the temporal “horizon” (in the East = axonometric perspective; eye movement is top right [foreground] down to bottom left [background]). Both perspectives are appositional in all cultures.
Heidegger assigns Logos to middle voice (1984: 60) and discusses the relation between Name and Word (1984: 77).
Merleau-Ponty’s “speech speaking” [Signifying Signifier], thus Prosopopoeia is a Trope of Speech (Semantic Meaning). See Lanigan (1992: 155–177). The present Handchart assumes you have read this chapter!
Chiasm Model: For Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and Michel Foucault, there is a postulated axiological valence in discourse based in the tropes of prosopopoeia and asyndeton embedded in the aphorism Le Même et L’Autre defined as the ratio Self : Same :: Other Different. For Merleau-Ponty the valence of perception is Freedom versus Terror; and, for Foucault the valence of expression is Desire versus Power. If discourse consists of both perception of expression [Merleau-Ponty] and expression of perception [Foucault], then axiology is reflective, reflexive, reversible. Therefore, the ratio Self : Same :: Other Different becomes an existential – social discourse valence: Freedom : Desire :: Power : Terror. For an explication of the valence discourse dynamic, see Lanigan (1996; discusses the Museum/Monument versus Library/Document metaphor taken from; Cassirer 1944: 117). See also Lanigan (2001, 2018).
Merleau-Ponty’s “gesture” as the sign of embodiment.
Edmund Husserl’s Stiftung (‘Founding,’ ‘Endowment’) = “Not a spatiality of position, but a spatiality of situation” (Merleau-Ponty 1962: 100).
Foucault’s existential “expressing” or “articulating” (énoncé) or parrhesia: “the one who speaks the truth” as the conjunction of “truth-telling (le dire vrai) and truthful speech (la parole vrai), the result of Rhetoric [in the Trivium] where the Person is “subject to.” Freud’s “talking cure.” Equivalent to Merleau-Ponty’s corps propre and Bourdieu’s hexis. To understand the Greek conceptions, see Lockwood (2013).
Allegory is a major, unsettled problematic (Mystos = mystery) in Greek epistemology (the term is not equivalent to the Medieval usage!) and has its’ modern version as the debate on the ontology of “Presentation” [Vorstellungfunction] where there is a distinction between Darstellungfunction (‘Representation’) and Ausdruckfunktion (‘Expression’). See Cassirer (1946: 53–60). It was resolved by the Medieval Scholastics in many ways, but notably as a hermeneutic approach to the Trivium (Logic, Rhetoric, Grammar). Merleau-Ponty implicitly, and Foucault explicitly, use the Scholastic blueprints in their approach to the problematic and thematic of Discourse (see note 10); for an explication, see especially Tables 1 and 2 in Lanigan (1992: 89, 167). For an applied model, see the Handchart “Lévi-Strauss’ Communicology Model of Myth [mythos] and Reality [logos].” Psychiatry concerns the contested choice (agon) of Mystos or Nous within the context of Mythos and Logos, hence the competing Voices heard by the patient! See specifically Jaynes (1976) and, generally the work of Karl Jaspers on communication and general psychopathology.
Foucault’s essential “expression” or “articulation” (énonciation) or the product of an epistḕmē: “the forgetfulness of rationality” [agōnia mermēra], the result of Grammar [in the Trivium Majorum] where the Person is “subject of.” Equivalent to Merleau-Ponty’s corps veçu and Bourdieu’s habitus. On the issue of the “Author,” see Lanigan (2001). Eulogos is the basis of Chaim Perelman’s “universal audience” in the New Rhetoric where reasonableness (mythos) is the ground of rationality (logos); see Peters (1967: 23) where eulogos is associated with hypothesis (elaborated by Charles S. Peirce and Gregory Bateson as Abduction).
Merleau-Ponty’s “speech spoken” [Signifying Signified], thus Asyndeton is a Figure of Language (Syntactic Signification).

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Published Online: 2019-05-31

Published in Print: 2019-07-26

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https://doi.org/10.1515/sem-2018-0030

Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel

communicology; Chomsky; epideictic; Foucault; hyperreality; media; rhetoric; simulacra