1 Introduction

Learners’ age impacts language teaching, with research showing that young children acquire languages more effectively than adults, especially through social exposure (Johnson and Newport 1989; Werker and Byers-Heinlein 2008). However, teaching young children can be challenging due to short attention spans and potential resistance to methods that do not meet their developmental needs. Supportive environments that foster engagement are crucial, as noted by Pitriana and Syahrudin (2013), who emphasize using diverse media and activities in language classes to make learning enjoyable. Effective vocabulary acquisition is essential for mastering reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills (Nam 2010; Syafrizal and Haerudin 2018). Young learners often face vocabulary gaps in their second language (L2), leading to lexical transfer from their mother tongue (Lorenz et al. 2021). In this study, children speak Arabic (Jordanian) and English, with English widely taught from preschool (Miao 2015). They learn Italian starting in first grade for only two hours per week, resulting in limited exposure. This research explores the challenges faced by these young learners and potential improvements.

The study investigates the use of interactive methods like Total Physical Response (TPR) and Game-Based Learning (GBL) to enhance Italian vocabulary instruction for young Arabic-speaking learners. Previous studies (AL-Tkhayneh et al. 2024) highlight the benefits of engaging activities on student interest in language learning. This comparative study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of these approaches based on vocabulary knowledge criteria and provide data for innovative teaching in multilingual contexts. The research addresses the following questions:

1. How does GBL influence Arabic-speaking first graders’ acquisition of Italian vocabulary?

   1. To what extent does GBL affect their word knowledge?

   2. Does GBL impact the development of specific vocabulary acquisition skills?

2. How does TPR influence Arabic-speaking first graders’ acquisition of Italian vocabulary?

   1. To what extent does TPR affect their word knowledge?

   2. Does TPR impact the development of specific vocabulary acquisition skills?

3. How does learning Italian vocabulary through these approaches affect children’s post-test performance in light of AFH?

2 The Theoretical Framework

3 Previous studies

Based on the AFH, Stoimcheva-Kolarska (2020) examined the impact of learning a foreign language in a fun and relaxed environment on children’s outcomes. She compared two groups of 32 Russian kindergarteners aged 5–6 years who were taught English traditionally through worksheets and games. The experimental group achieved significantly higher results due to their enjoyable learning experience. Additionally, Er (2015) investigated anxiety levels in ESL classes among 544 Turkish students of different ages, noting that anxiety increases with students’ foreign language learning. She recommended that teachers adopt a positive attitude to facilitate language learning. Du (2009) highlighted that AFH helps teachers modify their strategies to support successful language acquisition. Similarly, Lin (2008) recommended incorporating emotional elements in classrooms to create a positive learning environment.

Wang (2020) emphasized the importance of using AFH in Chinese middle school English classes to create a peaceful environment, boost students’ confidence and motivation, and reduce anxiety, resulting in effective vocabulary learning among 121 thirteen-year-old students. As leaders of the learning process, teachers are responsible for lowering the affective filter. They can adapt their approaches to meet students’ needs, implement engaging activities, set up extracurricular opportunities, use modern teaching aids, and foster friendly relationships with students. Osterman (2000) noted that students who feel accepted have higher motivation and engagement, leading to improved performance. Conteh-Morgan (2002: 193) stated that the educational setting should be relieving and that the affective filter must drop when learners enter the classroom. She emphasized the need for a friendly and welcoming atmosphere. Mower (2018) argued that teachers should befriend students and help build positive relationships to create a comfortable learning environment.

Ismail and Ong’onda (2021) studied the influence of teachers’ affective filters on foreign language teaching efficiency by interviewing 54 Kenyan primary school English teachers. They found that teachers with high self-esteem, positive attitudes, and low anxiety are more effective, leading to better student learning. Motivated teachers positively influence their students and inspire a positive attitude toward the language. Conversely, Lim (2020) noted that lowering the affective filter is a shared responsibility between students and teachers. He clarified that students should come prepared for classes to foster a sense of competence. The researcher selected AFH as a theoretical framework for its relevance in guiding foreign language teaching and learning processes (Sun 2020; Khalifa 2020; Lightbown and Spada 2021; Soyoof et al. 2021).

Sukartiningsih and Priyantin (2010) stated that children have short concentration spans. Based on this, Pivnicki and Palinkasevic (2016) suggested that language classes for children should be dynamic and filled with interactive activities to help maintain focus. McCarthy (2019) discussed the importance of lowering the affective filter and provided guidelines such as decreasing self-consciousness, encouraging learner contributions, and stimulating movement. This study aims to examine the effectiveness of two pedagogical approaches, GBL and TPR, in lowering young learners’ affective filters and enhancing their foreign language vocabulary learning. GBL and TPR are compared to each other and to conventional pedagogy based on young learners’ vocabulary knowledge in a third language. The following sections will discuss GBL and TPR, explaining their fundamental principles and application procedures.

4 Research Design

This study adopts a quantitative quasi-experimental comparative design with pre- and post-tests and a nonequivalent control group, to examine the effectiveness of three different teaching approaches in teaching foreign language vocabulary to young learners (see Zibin et al. 2020). Cook (2015: 2) explains that “quasi-experiments usually test the causal consequences of long-lasting treatments outside of the laboratory. But unlike “true” experiments where treatment assignment is at random, assignment in quasi-experiments is by self-selection or administrator judgment”. The experimental nature of this research design helps researchers make sure that the results they have are attributed to a specific intervention that they have applied in the experiment (Miller, Smith, and Pugatch 2020).

5 Results

Analyzing the participants’ results essentially depends on the means of their marks in the tests. The means of their total results are analyzed first to evaluate their knowledge of the target words in general, and an analysis of their learning regarding each word knowledge criterion is presented later in this section. Table 4 presents the means of the participants’ results in the pre- and post-tests for each group.

The control group averaged 17.90 on the pre-test and 64.05 on the post-test, showing improvement in learning Italian vocabulary through traditional methods. The TPR group improved from 17.83 on the pre-test to 74.83 on the post-test, indicating significant enhancement due to the Total Physical Response (TPR) approach. The GBL group also increased from 16.94 on the pre-test to 73.33 on the post-test. These results suggest that the experimental groups outperformed the control group, likely due to the engaging strategies of TPR and Game-Based Learning (GBL). A univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to assess the statistical significance of the post-test differences among the three groups, with results presented in Table 5.

Table 5 shows that the differences between the participants’ results on the posttest compared to the pre-test in all three groups are statistically significant (p=0.005>0.05). This suggests that the performance of all three groups on the post-test has improved compared to the pre-test. To determine whether the treatments (TPR and GBL) affected the participants’ answers on the post-test compared to the control group, pairwise comparisons were administered, and the results are reported in Table 6.

Table 6 shows that the differences between the participants’ post-test answers in the GBL group and the control group were statistically significant (p = 0.011 < 0.05) in favor of the GBL group, indicating a positive impact of GBL treatment on performance. It also reveals that the differences between the TPR group and the control group were statistically significant (p = 0.018 < 0.05) in favor of the TPR group, suggesting that the TPR approach positively influenced performance. In contrast, the differences between the GBL and TPR groups were not statistically significant (p = 1.000 > 0.05), indicating that both treatments were equally effective.

The evaluation of learning Italian words can be based on various criteria of word knowledge, with researchers dividing the tests into four tasks to assess the participants’ understanding of the target words: pronunciation, listening, contextual knowledge, and interrelatedness. Table 7 presents the participants’ average scores on the pre- and post-tests for these four skills across the three groups.

According to Table 7, all three groups scored zero on the pronunciation, contextual knowledge, and interrelatedness tasks before the treatments, indicating a lack of prior knowledge. However, they were able to repeat words in the listening test as they were played. The control group scored an average of 0.00 on the pre-test of the pronunciation task, which increased to 7.10 on the post-test. This task involved displaying a picture to illustrate the word’s meaning and asking participants to provide the word for pronunciation assessment, making it the most challenging task as they relied solely on memory (cf. Altakhaineh, Alhloul, and Zibin 2022).

The control group achieved the lowest post-test score in this task compared to the experimental groups, as they learned the words through traditional memorization and repetition without engaging teaching methods. In the listening task, the control group scored an average of 17.90 on the pre-test and improved to 23.40 on the post-test. This task required participants to repeat words after hearing a native speaker’s pronunciation. Despite improvement, the control group did not surpass the experimental groups on this task. For the contextual knowledge task, they went from an average of 0.00 on the pre-test to 18.30 on the post-test, demonstrating significant advancement. This task involved twenty-four multiple-choice questions with context-related images. The interrelatedness task, which also consisted of twenty-four multiple-choice questions, showed an increase from 0.00 on the pre-test to 15.25 on the post-test, indicating great improvement. Overall, the control group showed performance improvements in all four skills based on pre- and post-test comparisons.

In the first experimental group (TPR), participants scored an average of 0.00 on the pre-test for the pronunciation task, increasing to 11.17 on the post-test, outperforming the control group. They scored 17.83 on the pre-test of the listening task, which increased to 23.00, making them comparable to the control group. However, the TPR group excelled in the contextual knowledge task, increasing from 0.00 on the pre-test to 20.56 on the post-test. They also improved from 0.00 to 20.11 on the interrelatedness task, significantly surpassing the control group. In summary, the TPR group outperformed the control group in pronunciation, contextual knowledge, and interrelatedness tasks, while both groups were nearly equal in the listening task.

In the second experimental group (GBL), participants scored an average of 0.00 on the pre-test for the pronunciation task, which jumped to 11.44 on the post-test, recording the highest average score among the three groups. Despite the lowest pre-test score of 16.94 on the listening task, they achieved the highest post-test score of 23.72. Their average score on the contextual knowledge task increased from 0.00 on the pre-test to 18.44 on the post-test. Finally, their interrelatedness task score rose from 0.00 on the pre-test to 19.72 on the post-test. The GBL group excelled in the pronunciation and listening tasks, while the TPR group outperformed others in contextual knowledge and interrelatedness tasks. To determine if the differences between pre- and post-test scores across all tasks in the three groups were statistically significant, Table 8 presents the results of the multivariate test.

According to Table 8, the results of the multivariate test indicate that the differences between the participants’ achievement on the four tasks’ pre- and post-tests among the three groups were statistically significant (p=0.001).

To get a more detailed analysis of the impact of the teaching approach on participants’ performance, their results on the post-tests of the four tasks were compared to investigate whether a specific teaching approach influences skills or not. Table 9 shows a pairwise comparison between the answers of the participants on all four tasks in the post-test.

Table 9 shows a statistically significant difference (p=0.025) between the control group and the GBL group in the post-test pronunciation task, favoring the GBL group. It also reveals a significant difference (p=0.003) in the interrelatedness task, with the GBL group outperforming the control group. Similarly, there is a significant difference (p=0.003) between the control group and the TPR group in the interrelatedness task, with the TPR group outperforming the control group. Both treatments, TPR and GBL, effectively helped participants relate pairs of words (body part and movement). However, neither treatment was statistically superior; both were equally effective. A discussion of the results based on the AFH and previous studies follows.

6 Discussion

The pre- and post-test results indicate that both experimental groups outperformed the control group. Krashen (1982) states that high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety enhance a learner’s ability to acquire new material (see Al-Momani et al. 2024). The improved performance of the experimental groups suggests that Game-Based Learning (GBL) and Total Physical Response (TPR) teaching methods lower learners’ affective filters by fostering an engaging and enjoyable learning environment, which enhances motivation and decreases foreign language anxiety (Horwitz 2010). This finding aligns with Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis (AFH).

The initial objective was to evaluate the effects of TPR and GBL methods on Arabic-speaking EFL children’s acquisition of Italian. Insights from the control group, taught using traditional methods, also relate to AFH. Although they did not use specific strategies to lower the affective filter, they still showed significant improvement from the pre-test to the post-test. This suggests that general motivation and lower anxiety levels can positively influence learning outcomes. According to Krashen’s AFH, a low-anxiety, high-motivation environment enhances language acquisition by increasing receptiveness to language input. The control group’s use of visual aids and interactions with the teacher likely cultivated a positive learning environment, contributing to their progress (Horwitz 2010). Their connection to the target language community may have further reinforced their engagement with the language (Frutiger 2018). Consequently, the control group improved in the post-test, indicating the potential effectiveness of traditional teaching techniques. This supports Laine (1988), who noted that school settings can create motivating environments that encourage participation and engagement.

The achievements of the GBL participants support findings by Wang et al. (2011), suggesting that game-playing can alleviate social anxiety, enabling learners to use the target language more freely. Additionally, the success of the GBL participants reinforces Masri and Najar’s (2014) argument that games enhance learner engagement through interactive educational activities. Similarly, Zhu (2018) argued that games promote student-centered learning.

The effectiveness of the TPR group supports Asher’s (2007) assertion that physical activity enhances learning by reducing stress and improving vocabulary retention. Kosmas and Zaphiris (2020) noted that learning through actions significantly aids vocabulary production, allowing learners to connect meanings to movements. Sariyati (2013) emphasized TPR’s suitability for young learners, who are naturally inclined toward movement and activity. Thus, both GBL and TPR are validated as effective teaching approaches for facilitating vocabulary learning among young learners.

This study assessed participants’ word knowledge based on four criteria: pronunciation, listening, contextual knowledge, and interrelatedness. The results showed that the GBL group excelled in the pronunciation task. The Hot Potato game provided intensive practice, motivating participants to focus on accurate pronunciation for competitive success. Additionally, the puzzle-solving activity encouraged students to attempt pronunciation independently before receiving guidance from their teacher. This competitive yet stress-free environment contributed to their mastery of pronunciation, aligning with findings by Sulistyowati and Sarosa (2014), who highlighted the effectiveness of puzzles in improving pronunciation. Their success also supports Stavy et al. (2019), who argued that puzzles aid vocabulary retention.

In the interrelatedness task, both experimental groups significantly outperformed the control group (Table 10). The GBL group’s success was due to the Hot Potato game, which helped participants associate related words, and the emphasis on pairs during puzzle-solving, which likely reduced affective filters and improved term associations. Pierce (2013) noted the role of game design in achieving educational outcomes. The TPR group excelled by aligning actions with song lyrics, reinforcing vocabulary connections. In contrast, the control group relied on memorization, reducing their engagement compared to the experimental groups, supporting Shoval et al.'s (2018) view that actions should match target word meanings.

The AFH provides insight into performance differences among the experimental groups but cannot fully explain all results, such as the similar performance between Total TPR and GBL, which showed no statistically significant differences despite differing pedagogical approaches. Data indicated distinct effects on specific tasks, with the GBL group excelling in pronunciation.

AFH does not clarify the nearly equivalent results of the control and TPR groups in the listening task, which contradicts earlier research by Cahyawati and Antara (2021) that suggested songs would enhance the TPR group’s performance. While AFH aids in understanding participants’ overall performance under specific teaching methods, it does not capture the complexities of these strategies. Further exploration is needed to understand how particular teaching approaches can enhance learner engagement, especially regarding vocabulary acquisition.

The improvement in the control group is significant. They demonstrated considerable progress from pre-test to post-test, indicating that traditional teaching methods also facilitate effective learning. This suggests that the absence of GBL and TPR did not impede their learning or significantly affect motivation, confidence, and anxiety levels. The findings imply that positive outcomes can arise within a traditional framework, indicating that various teaching methods may influence these factors without being mutually exclusive.

The multilingual backgrounds of the students may have shaped their language learning experiences. According to Ellis (1994), multilingualism can enhance language acquisition by increasing metalinguistic awareness. Research by Kalashnikova et al. (2014) and Kaushanskaya et al. (2014) supports the idea that multilingual children often excel in learning foreign vocabulary by relating multiple words across languages to the same concepts (Hirosh and Degani 2018). This highlights the importance of the context in which students learn and the diverse characteristics they bring to the classroom, prompting teachers to adapt their approaches effectively.

The teacher-student relationship is crucial in shaping students’ perceptions, attitudes, and engagement. This study highlights the multifaceted nature of the learning process. Effective teaching requires responsive instructional strategies and a supportive classroom environment. Educators must navigate these dynamics to optimize learning outcomes.

Assessing the tasks used, the pronunciation task relied heavily on participants’ memory. The GBL group’s superior performance may stem from their active engagement with vocabulary. To improve future assessments, incorporating images alongside words would focus on pronunciation skills rather than memory retention.

The interrelatedness task aimed to evaluate participants’ understanding of word relationships. As shown in Table 10, the control and TPR groups performed better on later questions, suggesting a reliance on memorization. In contrast, the GBL group demonstrated effective learning through gameplay, facilitating their understanding of vocabulary connections.

In conclusion, AFH provides a foundation for understanding the emotional factors influencing language learning, but the complexities observed in this study call for further research on the interaction between teaching methods, student characteristics, and instructional contexts. Enhancing vocabulary acquisition remains critical for educational practice, and future studies should emphasize instructional strategies that accommodate diverse learner needs. By addressing these challenges, educators can optimize their approaches to language instruction, leading to improved learning outcomes for all students.

The experiment in this study has generated some insightful ideas that may contribute to improving the educational system, which are presented in the following section.

7 Pedagogical Implications

This study provides practical strategies to enhance the learning process for students and benefit teachers. Firstly, students should have opportunities to explore pronunciation independently. In learning Italian, with its transparent orthography (Gossu 1999), students can often deduce pronunciation from spelling. Italian words are mostly pronounced as written, with few exceptions (Fava 2022) and limited ambiguities (Angelelli et al. 2018). Tools like puzzles, flashcards, and teaching aids can facilitate this exploration. In resource-limited settings, teachers can write words on the board and organize pronunciation competitions to boost engagement. Grouping students can reduce the fear of failure and promote teamwork. After collecting responses, teachers can play recordings of correct pronunciation by native speakers for self-correction.

Next, teachers should help students understand word meanings. Using images or videos to illustrate meanings can encourage students to guess definitions. In classrooms without smartboards, teachers might mimic meanings, use printed images, or create simple illustrations. While guessing may not work for abstract concepts like “kindness” or “truth,” teachers can provide initial definitions and enhance comprehension through activities, role plays, and storytelling. Reinforcing pronunciation and meaning requires practice, with the Hot Potato game recommended for fun and dynamic improvement.

Once students achieve proficiency in pronunciation, teachers can enhance their contextual knowledge of words. Understanding context involves recognizing word usage in specific situations. Teachers should provide insights into the time, place, actions, and items associated with each word. For example, “flower” may relate to “spring” (time), “garden” (place), “smelling” and “plucking” (actions), and “bouquet” (item). Asking students to identify these elements boosts engagement and creativity. A contextual drawing activity can foster engagement, and teachers can gather these elements to create exercises that assess understanding. For example, if students associate “summer” with “beach,” “ice cream,” “swimming pool,” and “sun,” teachers could design matching exercises comparing these with contrasting words like “coat,” “snow,” “skiing,” and “cold.”

Knowledge of word interrelatedness can stem from contextual activities and be reinforced through various exercises. While this study showed the effectiveness of movement through dancing for understanding body parts and actions, this may not be universally applicable. The Hot Potato game is a flexible option for practicing interrelatedness, adaptable to different group sizes and vocabulary. Teachers could also create crossword puzzles centered around interconnected words, providing a non-physical activity as needed.

Finally, listening skills can be nurtured throughout the vocabulary learning process, with additional development through dedicated practice. Songs are valuable for listening activities, especially when performed by native speakers. Teachers are encouraged to find suitable cartoon materials in the target language, particularly updated versions of popular children’s shows. When classroom resources are limited, providing parents with access to these materials can facilitate exposure to the language outside of class.

8 Conclusion

This study examined the effectiveness of Game-Based Learning (GBL) and Total Physical Response (TPR) for teaching foreign language vocabulary to young learners, framed by the Affective Filter Hypothesis (AFH). Vocabulary knowledge was assessed based on four criteria: pronunciation, listening, contextual knowledge, and interrelatedness. It was revealed that unconventional methods like GBL and TPR create engaging, low-anxiety learning environments, enhancing motivation and confidence while reducing foreign language anxiety (Horwitz 2010). Research indicates that learners with lower anxiety levels engage more effectively in learning (Krashen 1982). Incorporating songs and movement through TPR supports a conducive learning atmosphere. Games enhance engagement by alleviating peer pressure and anxiety, leading to a more interactive experience. The TPR approach was particularly effective in teaching action words, where movements aligned with target vocabulary meanings (Asher 2007). While TPR and GBL were effective in this study, different strategies may be needed for teaching abstract vocabulary. The AFH may not fully explain the variances in teaching effectiveness across methodologies. Integrating AFH with other theories may improve its explanatory power.

The control group, using traditional teaching methods, provided insights related to the AFH. Their significant improvement, despite not targeting the affective filter, suggests that motivation and anxiety levels influence learning outcomes. Additionally, factors such as teacher-student relationships, classroom environment, and perceptions of belonging to a language community play critical roles in shaping student attitudes, even in traditional settings.

The findings contribute to third language teaching by offering guidelines for selecting effective approaches and providing recommendations for classroom activities that foster engagement and improve learning outcomes. The study promotes learner-centered approaches in multicultural and multilingual contexts.

This research also adds to the field of Italian studies, which has received less attention. Manual games encourage physical activity in less equipped classrooms, but the role of digital games should not be overlooked due to their prevalence in children’s lives. Investing in educational digital games could be beneficial, and further research on popular digital games may inform their development and integration into classroom practices.