Volume 7, Issue 3

Non-Formal learning environments are crucial in science education, yet chemistry remains an underrepresented discipline. This scoping review examines non-formal chemistry learning literature from the past decade. A systematic search and triage process yielded 34 relevant studies. Quantitative analysis revealed that non-formal chemistry activities predominantly take the form of workshops, and tabletop experiments, valued for their hands-on engagement. Science shows, while less interactive, also feature prominently due to their broad appeal. Conversely, exhibits, fairs, TV and YouTube are less documented, likely reflecting resource constraints and implementation challenges. Evaluation practices varied, often emphasizing content knowledge rather than broader goals such as fostering interest or positive attitudes toward chemistry. Two key themes were constructed from our analysis of the literature. Firstly, underrepresented groups – such as individuals from low socio-economic backgrounds or with disabilities – face significant barriers to participation. Secondly, there is a cyclic relationship between affective-motivational factors, such as enjoyment, interest, attitude and motivation, and engagement with non-formal chemistry learning. This highlights the need for non-formal learning activities to effectively reach individuals with low initial interest, particularly from underrepresented demographics. This scoping review calls for more robust, inclusive, and comprehensive research to address existing gaps and maximize the impact of non-formal chemistry learning.

The spontaneous process is one of the most important concepts in thermodynamics. However, there are widespread confusions about it because of markedly different definitions in many textbooks of physical chemistry as well as its daily and nonscientific usage. To clarify the confusions, definitions of the spontaneous process in a number of widely used textbooks are reviewed and analyzed. Then, key points to correctly understand the thermodynamic spontaneous process are examined, and two modified definitions based on definitions in textbooks of physical chemistry are proposed. The recommended definition is that any closed system that is in equilibrium with its surroundings but not at equilibrium internally has the tendency to change to an equilibrium state, and this tendency of change is called the spontaneous process or the spontaneous direction. It emphasizes that the foremost precondition to define the spontaneous process is the equilibrium between the closed system and its surroundings. Accordingly, the “external influence” in several common definitions of the spontaneous process is revealed to be the energy irreversibly exchanged between the system and its surroundings, rather than energy or work in many definitions. Besides, typical criteria of the spontaneous process are discussed to reveal their necessary conditions based on proposed definitions, and some unanswered questions in textbooks of physical chemistry are resolved. The whole discussion would be helpful for chemistry lecturers and students to precisely understand the spontaneous process.

Freezing point depression and boiling point elevation are colligative properties that are taught in many undergraduate science curricula, often by a discussion of the change in chemical potential of the solution, or by referring to interactions between solute and solvent molecules, which evades the major entropy-driven effect. In this teaching proposal, we suggest introducing thermodynamics by a simplified and visual statistical method based on Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution plots that can be related to entropy. This approach allows for an entropy-based explanation of phase transition temperatures, freezing point depression and boiling point elevation. It focuses on showing that these colligative properties, in the limit of ideal systems, are caused exclusively by the increased number of microstates of the solution compared to the pure solvent. The disorder metaphor, which is often used to make the entropy concept more concrete, may be useful to discuss some aspects of this phenomenon. The statistical approach, however, is a more rigorous way to explain the links between molecular motion, entropy, and colligative properties.

The educational content of physical chemistry can be a burden for students who are classified as sensing learners (SL). Therefore, for SL, the lecturer must adapt the educational material reflected in standardizing certain procedures (for example, performing and proving similar expressions–differential changes of thermodynamic potentials) and visualization of abstract concepts and expressions. Here is presented the connection of differential changes of thermodynamic potentials in isentropic conditions with useful work (in the system, there is one exothermic reaction in the quasi-static regime) and with the differential change of internal energy in an adiabatic and isochoric composite system (reactive system + corresponding reservoir) as well as with the differential change of internal energy in the isochoric composite system. When defining an isentropic process (or system), the change in entropy that is a consequence of heat exchange and the change in entropy that is a consequence of a chemical reaction is considered. Differential changes in thermodynamic potentials are also shown schematically, facilitating SL’s mastery of the material.

The teaching laboratory is central to chemistry education, but student engagement has declined in recent years. Game-based learning (GBL) offers a promising strategy to increase motivation and interactivity. Here, we present the design and assessment of a tabletop, narrative-driven GBL intervention for the organic chemistry lab, focused on the “Identification of an Unknown” challenge. Students used in-game currency, earned by solving chemistry problems and completing laboratory tasks, to acquire analytical data (infrared spectra, elemental analysis) and perform wet chemistry tests. The game fostered collaboration, problem-solving, and integration of theoretical and practical skills. To evaluate impact, we compared performance in the GBL year ( n  = 126) to the two prior years, analyzing grades, effect sizes (Cohen’s d), and variance. The practical mean grade increased by 0.56 points ( p  = 0.02, d  = 0.32); the theoretical mean by 0.37 ( p  = 0.045, d  = 0.31). Surveys (46 % response) indicated perceived gains in motivation and understanding, though some students found resource management challenging. Both quantitative and qualitative data support GBL’s potential to enhance engagement and learning in organic chemistry labs and other STEM courses.

Integrating digital technologies (DT) in education has become a key factor in enhancing student learning outcomes, particularly in science education. This study investigates the predominant strategies employed in the university training of future chemistry and biology teachers to develop their digital competencies for classroom application. Using the Synthesize Qualitative Data (SQD) model, the research examines six key strategies: role model, reflection, instructional design, peer collaboration, authentic technology experiences, and continuous feedback. A triangulated methodology including surveys, interviews, and classroom observations was applied to assess university educators’ approaches and their alignment with actual teaching practices at Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski, the largest Bulgarian teacher training institution. The findings reveal that the role model and feedback emerge as the most widely employed strategies, while authentic technology experiences remain underutilized, likely due to the insufficient number of hours allocated for pre-graduation practice and internships, where future teachers could apply DT in real (authentic) school settings. The study highlights the need for curricular adaptations to enhance the digital competencies of future science teachers, ensuring they are equipped to integrate DT effectively into the school environment. The results provide a foundation for improving teacher education programmes and aligning pedagogical activities and practices with current technological advancements.

Conceptual teaching in science education and its implications for pedagogical research have been extensively studied. Likewise, lesson study (LS) has been recognized as a powerful tool for continuous professional development and effective teaching practices. Despite the recognized importance of LS and the affordances of topic-specific PCK (TSPCK) in developing conceptual teaching, the connection between these two approaches in fostering conceptual teaching, remains under-explored within science education. This study aims to explore the development of a conceptual teaching from the dynamic interplay of TSPCK components for teaching a section of organic reactions through a TSPCK-based LS. A qualitative research approach was followed with four teachers from Umkhanyakude district in KwaZulu-Natal. These teachers participated in a TSPCK-based LS to develop a conceptual teaching strategy using Content Representation (CoRe). The findings revealed that teachers progressed from a basic to a developing level of conceptual teaching expertise through LS, as measured by TSPCK component interaction. While the findings are not generalizable, they offer valuable insights into teacher development, highlighting LS as an effective approach for enhancing conceptual teaching in science. This study concludes by recommending large-scale research exploring the role of reflection and feedback during LS in developing conceptual teaching within TSPCK interventions.

This study examines the impact of an outreach education in chemistry for circular plastic solutions (OEC-Circle) program on enhancing Thai 12th-grade students’ understanding of plastic-related chemistry and fostering positive learning attitudes. The program integrates the circular plastic economy through inquiry-based learning, including citizen inquiry and guided inquiry activities. The curriculum consists of three modules: Plastic Smart City, circular plastic economy, and sustainable polymer, blending lecture, demonstration, laboratory, and field experiences. A total of 32 students participated, and their learning outcomes were assessed using a pre- and post-test, along with a learning attitude about chemistry survey (CLASS-Chem). Results indicated a significant improvement in students’ understanding of topics like sustainable polymers and waste management, with a large effect size in the post-test. The CLASS-Chem survey also showed a positive shift in students’ attitudes, including increased interest, confidence, and an understanding of the real-world relevance of chemistry. These findings suggest that the program was effective in both improving students’ chemistry knowledge and fostering a deeper engagement with sustainability issues. The study highlights the potential of combining inquiry-driven learning with sustainability themes to enhance students’ attitudes toward chemistry and prepare them to address real-world challenges, particularly those related to plastic waste and sustainability.

The study aimed at evaluating the effect of using process-oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL) approach on grade 12 students’ conceptual understanding and achievement in electrochemistry, and assessing students’ attitudes towards the approach. For the purpose a quasi-experimental research approach with a treatment group (TG) and a control group (CG) was employed. The TG students were taught by the POGIL approach while CG students were taught by the lecture method. The data were collected using pretest, posttest, observation, questionnaires, and interviews. Moreover, Cohen’s effect size test was used to evaluate the effect size between the two groups or the magnitude of the intervention. The collected data were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. The result of the pretest revealed that no significant difference ( p  > 0.05) observed between the two groups while a significant difference ( p  < 0.05) was observed on the posttest. The TG students’ achievement was significantly improved compared to the CG students. The effect size results indicated that small and large effect sizes were observed in pre- and posttests respectively. In general, the study revealed the effectiveness of POGIL in improving students’ conceptual understanding of electrochemistry rather than the lecture method and students have a positive attitude towards the approach.

The main purpose of this study is to develop a portable syringe experiment kit for easy demonstration of the chemical kinetics of H 2 , C 2 H 2, and CO 2 gas-generating reactions for upper secondary school chemistry classrooms. The main apparatus comprises two large (A and C) and one small (B) Luer-lock-tip syringes connected with a 3-way stopcock. Ignition is applied to test H 2 and C 2 H 2 gases. In contrast, the turbidity of lime water is used to test CO 2 gas. The effects of reactant species and concentrations on the reaction rates were demonstrated. The syringe kit was implemented through the 5E inquiry learning process for a group of 33 grade 11 students, leading to an improvement in their conceptual test scores on chemical reaction rates from 33.94 % to 78.03 %, with a normalized gain in the medium range (< g = 0.67>). This suggests that using the syringe kit within the 5E inquiry learning framework effectively supported students in developing a more accurate conceptual understanding of reaction rates.

Titration is one of the most prevalent methods practice in almost all laboratories. Worldwide every curriculum for science and engineering undergraduate students has titrations included in their laboratory sessions. However, there are few drawbacks associated with it when it comes to chemical discharge and cost due to excess consumption of titrants, titrand and related chemicals during titration. Further, the method is an exhaustive time consuming process. In present study, conventional titration method using single burette used for determination of total hardness of water has been explored in different perspective by adopting a double burette method approach. Based on a comparative laboratory study it was found that a double burette method is not only safer and faster but also relatively more economical.

The article discusses the knowledge of students in metal corrosion. Usually, resistance of metals against corrosion is determined by the values of the standard electromotive force (EMF) of the metals determined versus the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). However, the standard conditions differ from the real-world conditions under which metal corrosion occurs, so the standard EMF cannot be accepted as an absolute indication of metal`s resistance to corrosion. This difference is due to many environmental factors (e.g., temperature, pH, pressure, concentrations of hydrogen and oxygen in the environment etc.); thus, the value of metal potential is affected. Therefore, the authors have suggested using stationary (corrosion) potentials of metals and galvanic series instead of the standard EMF in the education process. In the article, the authors present a comparison of metal activity series based on standard EMF and galvanic series. The advantage of the galvanic series offered to students studying corrosion is illustrated by the problematic tasks for light metals (Ti, Mg, and Al) and corrosion galvanic cells. Based on the presented values of the metal potentials in the galvanic series, students were able to correctly choose the type of metal coating, they can calculate the EMF values of the corrosion process more accurate and verify them experimentally during the laboratory session.

Medicinal (or also Pharmaceutical) Chemistry practical classes are intended to familiarize students who have already passed Inorganic and Organic Chemistry Courses in the first or the second year of a Faculty of Pharmacy with real syntheses of medicines that are used in the practice. The selection of practical tasks is limited by the time reserved for each practical lesson in which at least one step of a multi-step synthesis must be done. This fact pushes us to optimize individual synthesis steps to shorten them as much as possible, but with acceptable yields. Valproic acid, 2-propylpentanoic acid, is a drug approved originally as an antiepileptic but is now used as a co-analgesic and in various neurology indications. Our synthesis comes from the classical malonate synthesis but is newly optimized to be managed during three practical lessons.