Volume 10, Issue 4 -

In this contribution, we investigate the impact of language-internal and language-external factors on the parametrized grammatical domain of (null) subjects in adult Italian heritage speakers (HS, n=16). Based on empirical evidence from correlation analyses comparing these speakers´ spontaneous speech to monolingual Italians (n=10), we determine the kind and extent of variation in monolingual and bilingual adult end-state grammars. We will show that there is indeed a significant variation in the null subject production of the HS related to the factors age and education which is, however, constrained to contexts of 1 st grammatical person. This observation cannot be taken to represent incomplete acquisition but rather a discourse and possibly situation-related competent behaviour. We propose that end-state HS grammars are characterized by a full grammatical and pragmatic competence, combined with a larger variation of language-externally determined preferences than monolinguals show. This does not call the native end-state competence of HS into question but opens the door for potential changes in future bilingual generations. We further discuss the implications for language acquisition theory and language change in terms of stability.

The rich morphology of Spanish, such as that of tense and verbal mood, encodes a range of features leading to diverse contextual effects on interpretation, some of which are examined in the light of original experimental data in the present study. Specifically, we analyse data on the interpretation of mood in concessive structures by upper-intermediate and advanced learners of L2 Spanish, with L1 French (N=48) and L1 English (N=40), and from an L1 European Spanish control group (N=35). The results of the learner-group interpretation experiment led to a follow-on study enquiring into the understanding of mood alternation in concessive clauses by another group of L1 European Spanish speakers through a metalinguistic interpretation task. Learner group findings suggested a heavier reliance on lexical information and world-knowledge than on grammatical cues, while L1 speakers’ data indicate a default association maintained between subjunctive and irrealis interpretations, leading to a greater measure of variability in describing presuppositional uses of this mood. The native speaker data may reflect challenges posed by representing and describing, using metalinguistic knowledge, structures whose interpretation requires the integration of linguistic, discourse and extralinguistic information. Findings are discussed in relation to current linguistic descriptions and potential contributions of our empirical data.

The goal of this study is to shed light on how empirical data on the discourse constraints of null and overt third person subject pronouns in L1 and bilingual Spanish meet linguistic theory. A (semi)spontaneous production task was administered to 34 Moroccan Arabic (MA)/Spanish early sequential bilinguals and 30 L1 Spanish controls. All 3 rd person subject positions were coded: (1) morphosyntactic form (null pronoun vs. overt pronoun); (2) discourse function ([-Topic Shift] vs. [+Topic Shift]); (3) sentence relation (intrasentential vs. intersentential); (4) clause order within intrasentential contexts (main-subordinate vs. subordinate-main); and (5) access to the antecedent (clear vs. ambiguous antecedent). The results reveal general patterns of use in both L1 and bilingual Spanish: null pronouns express topic maintenance both in inter- and intrasentential contexts (both clause orders) and overt pronouns, especially in intersentential contexts, are generally used for topic change. However, additional analyses provide evidence that null pronouns in L1, but not in bilingual Spanish, are often used in change of reference contexts where the antecedent is not ambiguous. This reveals patterns that have gone unreported by most previous descriptive and theoretical studies. Finally, a higher use of ambiguous null pronouns is attested among bilingual speakers, which suggests a lower control of the mechanisms by which reference is established in discourse and supports, to some extent, the predictions derived from the Interface Hypothesis.

Using Marxist notions of value, this study examines how the commodification of language instruction skews understandings of who is deemed a legitimate teacher of English in South Korea. The study argues that neoliberalism incentivizes the Korean ELT market to create value in race and racialized images. For example, the analysis explores how skin color, nationality, ethnicity, and facial morphology are used to sell an “authentic” and “Western” learning experience, thus creating exchange value in characteristics and features that are not traditionally associated with good language teaching, such as the ability to communicate information effectively. Analyzing interviews, job advertisements, and immigration documents from a critical discourse analytic perspective, the analysis uncovers how a market-driven ELT profession contributes to, and represents, a nexus of racially-motivated ideologies that circulates the discourse that English in South Korea is an indispensable form of upward mobility. The paper ends by contending that scholars and practitioners must do more to understand how constructs central to markets, such as value and commodity, shed light on pressing critical ELT issues.

This study looks into the increasing emphasis on the use of language tests for global workplace preparation in Japan. It presents particular usages of English language tests in higher education curricula designed to foster “Global Human Resources” (GHRs), a special global workforce with high levels of English proficiency deemed necessary by the Japanese government. Focusing on a government-initiated five-year funding program, “The Project for Promotion of Global Human Resources”, government documents and the project planning sheets of 11 universities are analyzed to trace how language tests act as a form of governmentality (Foucault. 2007 [1977]. Security, territory, population: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977–1978 (Trans. by Graham Burchell). New York: Palgrave Macmillan) to maximize the number of GHRs. I describe how language tests are used to portray a reality about the lack of English proficiency among Japanese youth, how they work as a powerful accountability measure for universities, and how these tests are incorporated into language education curricula with the goal of increasing students’ language capital. Three functions of language tests are then identified in the universities’ proposed curricula: motivating, categorizing, and prioritizing through testing. These governing techniques represent how language tests can work to promote neoliberal forms of international education that instrumentalize language learning, stimulate inequitable competition, and (un)reward certain global subjectivities.

This investigation explored Taiwanese university students’ and professors’ perceptions of the effectiveness of “English Corner” in improving second language ability. Qualitative and quantitative data was collected through student attendee questionnaires ( n =256); teaching logs ( n =2); and teaching excellence university professor questionnaires ( n =70). Item analysis and factor analysis was conducted to uncover factors affecting students’ perceptions of English Corner and qualitative content analysis using In Vivo and Emotion coding revealed themes affecting “English Corner” success or failure. Overall, findings indicate “English Corner” has the most influence on students’ willingness to speak in English and their enjoyment in speaking English. These results are encouraged by administration supported flexible teachers that apply various scaffolding techniques during lessons. However, analysis also indicated that success of “English Corner” is highly contextualized, with professors from teaching excellence universities possessing a dichotomized view of “English Corner” effectiveness.

This response to Pérez-Cañado’s (2017) disappointing defence of CLIL interests insists on the need for a clear definition of CLIL not only so that it can be characterised for comparative purposes, but also so that the fundamentals underlying it can be scrutinised, instead of the continued hedging of bets on a moving target, justified for its contextual flexibility. As an example, whether CLIL classes are accompanied by FL classes on the curriculum or not is not a minor issue, both practically and theoretically. In addition other questions are reconsidered such as the communicative nature of CLIL, especially when it comes to whether the content is likely to be more motivating, and the supposed egalitarianism of CLIL initiatives. Finally, two research issues are discussed. Firstly, an example demonstrates how it is perfectly legitimate to critique empirical CLIL research which argues apparently beneficial results from a ‘due to’ stance by countering it with ‘despite’ arguments, while leaving much of the flawed CLIL research aside. Secondly, there is a reiterated demand that disinterested research at a curricular level confront outcomes in both the FLs and the content covered in CLIL programmes for all the state-school students affected both directly or indirectly, and in comparable terms.

The present study explores the effects of recast plus form-focused instruction and form-focused instruction on vocabulary development and the mediating effect of working memory. Sixty-six university students were assigned to a recast plus form-focused instruction (FFI) group, a FFI group, and a control group. The instructor provided recasts on non-target vocabulary items in the recast plus FFI group, whereas the FFI group completed two form-focused vocabulary tasks only. Pretests, posttests, and delayed posttests were administered to examine learners’ development of target vocabulary items. A reading span test was employed to examine learners’ complex working memory capacities. Results show that the recast plus FFI group exhibited superior performance over the control group on both posttests and delayed posttests with large effect sizes. Working memory did not significantly correlate with vocabulary development in either treatment group.

Two conceptions of the linguistic system of bilinguals are in contention. The translanguaging approach supports what we call a unitary view, arguing that bilingualism and multilingualism, despite their importance as sociocultural concepts, have no correspondence in a dual or multiple linguistic system. In our view, the myriad lexical and structural features mastered by bilinguals occupy a cognitive terrain that is not fenced off into anything like the two areas suggested by the two socially named languages. But a strong critique of this view by Jeff MacSwan adopts the familiar position that, while allowing for some overlap, the competence of bilinguals involves language specific internal differentiation. According to this view, which we have called the dual correspondence theory , bilinguals possess two separate linguistic systems whose boundaries coincide with those of the two named languages. Several interdisciplinary considerations point to the lack of initial plausibility of the dual correspondence theory. And the main argument offered by MacSwan in defense of the theory, namely restrictions on code switching, lacks descriptive adequacy and theoretical coherence. The dual correspondence theory has had pernicious effects in educational practices. A much healthier educational climate is created by teachers who adopt the unitary view sponsored by translanguaging.

Humour appreciation involves split second detection and resolution of cultural and pragmatic incongruities. Second language (L2) users may need more time and effort to understand and appreciate L2 humour. Previous studies have mostly used decontextualized verbal jokes and reported a linear relationship between L2 proficiency and humour appreciation. The present study strives for more ecological validity by using audiovisual-based, multimodal humorous stimuli. A total of 272 Chinese L2 users of English and 94 English L1 users rated the funniness and the ease of understanding of two short video extracts and then completed an English vocabulary size test, LexTALE. The findings suggest that L2 users need to reach a certain threshold in L2 linguistic, pragmatic and sociocultural knowledge before a positive linear relationship emerges between proficiency and appreciation of multimodal humorous stimuli. Also, advanced L2 users demonstrated similarities with English L1 users in humour processing.

The labelling of teachers of English as either ‘native’ or ‘non-native’ speakers in the field of English Language Teaching continues to promote ideals of ‘native-speakers’ that impact negatively on the teaching lives of those teachers using English as another language. In this paper, I explore constructs of ‘native-speakerism’ (Holliday, Adrian. 2015. Native-speakerism: Taking the Concept Forward and Achieving Cultural Belief. In Anne Swan, Pamela Aboshiha & Adrian. Hollliday (eds.), Encountering Native-speakerism: Global perspectives , 11–25. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan) by examining them as networks or assemblages formed through interactions of people, technologies, discourses and other material objects integral to teaching and learning environments. Drawing on ‘Actor-network theory’, I analyse unique influences of ‘native’ and ‘non-native’ networks as experienced by individual teachers of English from different contexts. The data collected in this qualitative study shows how ‘native-speaker’ networks form and exert power to reinforce the ideal of ‘native-speaker’ teachers, and restrict the agency of those who are classed as ‘non-native’. By unravelling these networks, I challenge the notions on which they are constructed, and show how the categorising of teachers in this way undermines the legitimacy of those classed as ‘non-native’, and limits their professional development. I therefore argue that moving beyond these labels is an essential step for English Language Teaching to move forward as a profession.

In an effort to explain why we found certain exchanges among colleagues troubling, the current study draws on Sue’s (2010a) microaggressions framework to reveal hidden hierarchies within an academic speech community. We complement Sue’s theoretical framework with empirical, pragmatic approaches to analyzing every-day, unrecorded interactions to both strengthen and refine the microaggressions construct and research agenda. Based on our analyses, which highlight the hierarchical relationships between participants, we propose revising the microaggressions construct to attribute their existence to revelations of (overt and covert) hierarchies, and not marginalization. Where Sue attributes microaggressions to an individual’s or group’s marginalization, our analyses suggest, in fact, that marginalization is the result (rather than the cause) of microaggressions. The analysis and discussion focus on hierarchical relationships common to many university English departments, but parallels can be drawn with other fields, such as language and linguistics programs within larger departments, and thus are relevant beyond a single discipline. We also propose restricting the microaggressions construct to unintentional slights and snubs (rather than both intentional and unintentional as in Sue’s framework), since part of what makes microaggressions so troubling is their unexpected appearance in conversations and friendly discussions among colleagues.