Article
Licensed
Unlicensed Requires Authentication

Processing of Polymer Nanocomposites Reinforced with Cellulose Nanocrystals: A Challenge

Published/Copyright: April 6, 2013
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill

Abstract

Aqueous suspensions of cellulose nanocrystals can be prepared by acid hydrolysis of the biomass. Due to their nanoscale dimensions and intrinsic physicochemical properties, these nanoparticles are promising renewable biomaterials. The high mechanical properties and reinforcing capability of these nanoparticles make them attractive for the processing of high performance nanocomposites. The main problem is related to the homogeneous dispersion of these nanoparticles within the polymeric matrix. Because cellulose nanocrystals are obtained as aqueous suspensions, water is the preferred processing medium. However, new strategies are envisaged to broaden the polymeric matrices that can be reinforced with these nanoparticles and avoid the liquid medium processing way. This paper reviews the different processing techniques of cellulose nanocrystals reinforced polymer nanocomposites focusing on the challenging melt processing technique.


Mail address: Alain Dufresne, The International School of Paper, Print Media and Biomaterials (Pagora), Grenoble Institute of Technology, CS 10065, 38402 Saint Martin d'Hères, France. E-mail:

References

Alloin, F., et al., “Poly(oxyethylene) and Ramie Whiskers Based Nanocomposites: Influence of Processing: Extrusion and Casting/Evaporation”, Cellulose, 18, 957973(2011), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10570-011-9543-xSearch in Google Scholar

Anglès, M. N., Dufresne, A., et al., “Plasticized Starch/Tunicin Whiskers Nanocomposites: 1. Structural Analysis”, Macromolecules, 33, 83448353(2000), http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ma0008701Search in Google Scholar

Azeredo, H. M. C., et al., “Edible Films from Alginate-Acerola Puree Reinforced with Cellulose Whiskers”, Food Sci. Technol., 46, 294297(2012)Search in Google Scholar

Azizi Samir, M. A. S., et al., “Tangling Effect in Fibrillated Cellulose Reinforced Nanocomposites”, Macromolecules, 37, 43134316(2004a), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ma035939uSearch in Google Scholar

Azizi Samir, M. A. S., et al., “Cellulose Nanocrystals Reinforced Poly-(oxyethylene)”, Polymer, 45, 40334041(2004b), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2004.03.094Search in Google Scholar

Azizi Samir, M. A. S., et al., “Review of Recent Research into Cellulosic Whiskers, their Properties and their Application in Nanocomposite Field”, Biomacromolecules, 6, 612626(2005), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bm0493685, PMid: 15762621Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Ben Azouz, K., et al., “Simple Method for the Melt Extrusion of a Cellulose Nanocrystal Reinforced Hydrophobic Polymer”, ACS Macro Lett., 1, 236240(2012), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/mz2001737Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Bendahou, A., et al., “Physico-Chemical Characterization of Palm from Phoenix Dactylifera – L, Preparation of Cellulose Whiskers and Natural Rubber–Based Nanocomposites”, J. Biobased Mat. Bioenergy, 3, 8190(2009), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jbmb.2009.1011Search in Google Scholar

Bondeson, D., Oksman, K., et al., “Polylactic Acid/Cellulose Whisker Nanocomposites Modified by Polyvinyl Alcohol”, Composites Part A, 38, 24862492(2007), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2007.08.001Search in Google Scholar

Bras, J., et al., “Mechanical, Barrier, and Biodegradability Properties of Bagasse Cellulose Whiskers Reinforced Natural Rubber Nanocomposites”, Ind. Crops Prod., 32, 627633(2010), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.07.018Search in Google Scholar

Cao, X., et al., “New Nanocomposite Materials Reinforced with Flax Cellulose Nanocrystals in Waterborne Polyurethane”, Biomacromolecules, 8, 899904(2007), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bm0610368, PMid: 17315923Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Cao, X., et al., “Green Composites Reinforced with Hemp Nanocrystals in Plasticized Starch”, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 109, 38043810(2008a), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/app.28418Search in Google Scholar

Cao, X., et al., “Starch-based Nanocomposites Reinforced with Flax Cellulose Nanocrystals”, eXPRESS Polym. Let., 2, 502510(2008b)10.3144/expresspolymlett.2008.60Search in Google Scholar

Chauve, G., et al., “Cellulose Poly(Ethylene-co-Vinyl Acetate) Nanocomposites Studied by Molecular Modeling and Mechanical Spectroscopy”, Biomacromolecules, 6, 20252031(2005), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bm0501205, PMid: 16004441Search in Google Scholar

Chazeau, L., et al., “Viscoelastic Properties of Plasticized PVC Reinforced with Cellulose Whiskers”, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 71, 17971808, (1999), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(19990314)71:11<1797::AID-APP9>3.0.CO;2-ESearch in Google Scholar

Chen, Y., et al., “Bionanocomposites Based on Pea Starch and Cellulose Nanowhiskers Hydrolyzed from Pea Hull Fibre: Effect of Hydrolysis Time”, Carbohydr. Polym., 76, 607615(2009), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.11.030Search in Google Scholar

Choi, Y. J., Simonsen, J., et al., “Cellulose Nanocrystal-Filled Carboxymethyl Cellulose Nanocomposites”, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 6, 633639(2006), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2006.132, PMid: 16573114Search in Google Scholar

de Menezes, A. J., et al., “Extrusion and Characterization of Functionalized Cellulose Whisker Reinforced Polyethylene Nanocomposites”, Polymer, 50, 45524563(2009), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2009.07.038Search in Google Scholar

Dubief, D., et al., “Polysaccharide Microcrystals Reinforced Amorphous Poly(β-Hydroxyoctanoate) Nanocomposite Materials”, Macromolecules, 32, 57655771, (1999), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ma990274aSearch in Google Scholar

Dufresne, A., et al., “Comparing the Mechanical Properties of High Performances Polymer Nanocomposites from Biological Sources”, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 6, 322330(2006), PMid: 16573028Search in Google Scholar

Favier, V., et al., “Nanocomposites Materials from Latex and Cellulose Whiskers”, Polym. Adv. Technol., 6, 351355(1995), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pat.1995.220060514Search in Google Scholar

Fortunati, E., et al., “Multifunctional Bionanocomposite Films of Poly(lactic acid), Cellulose Nanocrystals and Silver Nanoparticles”, Carbohydr. Polym., 87, 15961605(2012), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.09.066Search in Google Scholar

Garcia de Rodriguez, N. L., et al., “Sisal Cellulose Whiskers Reinforced Polyvinyl Acetate Nanocomposites”, Cellulose, 13, 261270(2006), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10570-005-9039-7Search in Google Scholar

Goetz, L., et al., “A Novel Nanocomposite Ffilm Prepared from Crosslinked Cellulosic Whiskers”, Carbohydr. Polym., 75, 8589(2009), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.06.017Search in Google Scholar

Goffin, A.-L., et al., “Poly(∊-caprolactone) Based Nanocomposites Reinforced by Surface-Grafted Cellulose Nanowhiskers via Extrusion Processing: Morphology, Rheology, and Thermo-Mechanical Properties”, Polymer, 52, 15321538(2011a), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2011.02.004Search in Google Scholar

Goffin, A.-L., et al., “From Interfacial Ring-opening Polymerization to Melt Processing of Cellulose Nanowhisker-filled Polylactide-Based Nanocomposites”, Biomacromolecules, 12, 24562465(2011b), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bm200581h, PMid: 21623629Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Grunert, M., Winter, W. T., et al., “Nanocomposites of Cellulose Acetate Butyrate Reinforced with Cellulose Nanocrystals”, J. Polym. Environ., 10, 2730(2002), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1021065905986Search in Google Scholar

Habibi, Y., et al., “Cellulose Nanocrystals: Chemistry, Self-Assembly, and Applications”, Chem. Rev., 110, 34793500(2010), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cr900339w, PMid: 20201500Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Helbert, W., et al., “Thermoplastic Nanocomposites Filled with Wheat Straw Cellulose Whiskers. Part I: Processing and Mechanical Behavior”, Polym. Compos., 17, 604611(1996), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pc.10650Search in Google Scholar

Heux, L., et al., “Nonflocculating and Chiral-Nematic Self-ordering of Cellulose Microcrystals Suspensions in Nonpolar Solvents”, Langmuir, 16, 82108212(2000), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/la9913957Search in Google Scholar

Jiang, L., et al., “Study of the Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate-co-3-Hydroxyvalerate)/Cellulose Nanowhiskers Composites Prepared by Solution Casting and Melt Processing”, J. Compos. Mat., 42, 26292645(2008), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021998308096327Search in Google Scholar

Kvien, I., et al.Characterization of Cellulose Whiskers and Their Nanocomposites by Atomic Force and Electron Microscopy”, Biomacromolecules, 6, 31603165(2005), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bm050479t, PMid: 16283741Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Kvien, I., et al., “Characterization of Starch Based Nanocomposites”, J. Mater. Sci., 42, 81638171(2007), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10853-007-1699-2Search in Google Scholar

Lee, S. Y., et al., “Nanocellulose Reinforced PVA Composite Films: Effects of Acid Treatment and Filler Loading”, Fibers and Polymers, 10, 7782(2009), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12221-009-0077-xSearch in Google Scholar

Lemahieu, L., et al., “Extrusion of Nanocellulose Reinforced Nanocomposites Using the Dispersed Nano-Objects Protective Encapsulation (DOPE) Process”, Macromol. Mat. Eng., 296, 984991(2011), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mame.201100015Search in Google Scholar

Lin, N., et al., “Preparations, Properties and Applications of Polysaccharide Nanocrystals in Advanced Functional Nanomaterials: A Review”, Nanoscale, 4, 32743294(2012), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c2nr30260h, PMid: 22565323Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Liu, H., et al., “Fabrication and Properties of Transparent Polymethylmethacrylate/Cellulose Nanocrystals Composites”, Bioresource Technol., 101, 56855692(2010), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.02.045, PMid: 20206507Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Liu, H., Laborie, M. P., et al., “Bio-based Nanocomposites by In Situ Cure of Phenolic Prepolymers with Cellulose Whiskers”, Cellulose, 18, 619630(2011), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10570-011-9499-xSearch in Google Scholar

Ljungberg, N., et al., “New Nanocomposite Materials Reinforced with Cellulose Whiskers in Atactic Polypropylene: Effect of Surface and Dispersion Characteristics”, Biomacromolecules, 6, 27322739(2005), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bm050222v, PMid: 16153113Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Ljungberg, N., et al., “Nanocomposites of Isotactic Polypropylene Reinforced with Rod-Like Cellulose Whiskers”, Polymer, 47, 62856292(2006), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2006.07.013Search in Google Scholar

Lu, Y., et al., “Biocomposites of Plasticized Starch Reinforced with Cellulose Crystallites from Cottonseed Linter”, Macromol. Biosci., 5, 11011107(2005), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mabi.200500094, PMid: 16245266Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Lu, Y., et al., “Morphological, Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Ramie Crystallites-Reinforced Plasticized Starch Biocomposites”, Carbohydr. Polym., 63, 198204(2006), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2005.08.027Search in Google Scholar

Mathew, A. P., Dufresne, A., et al., “Morphological Investigation of Nanocomposites from Sorbitol Plasticized Starch and Tunicin Whiskers”, Biomacromolecules, 3, 609617(2002), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bm0101769, PMid: 12005534Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Matos Ruiz, M., et al., “Processing and Characterization of New Thermoset Nanocomposites Based on Cellulose Whiskers”, Compos. Interfaces, 7, 117131(2000), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156855400300184271Search in Google Scholar

Mikkonen, K. S., et al., “Glucomannan Composite Films with Cellulose Nanowhiskers”, Cellulose, 17, 6981(2010), http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10570-009-9380-3Search in Google Scholar

Moon, R. J., et al., “Cellulose Nanomaterials Review: Structure, Properties and Nanocomposites”, Chem. Soc. Rev., 40, 39413994(2011), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c0cs00108b, PMid: 21566801Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Noishiki, Y., et al., “Mechanical Properties of Silk Fibroin-microcrystalline Cellulose Composite Films”, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 86, 34253429(2002), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/app.11370Search in Google Scholar

Oksman, K., et al., “Manufacturing Process of Cellulose Whiskers/Polylactic Acid Nanocomposites”, Compos. Sci. Technol., 66, 27762778(2006), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2006.03.002Search in Google Scholar

Orts, W. J., et al., “Application of Cellulose Microfibrils in Polymer Nanocomposites”, J. Polym. Env., 13, 301306(2005), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10924-005-5514-3Search in Google Scholar

Paralikar, S. A., et al., “Poly(Vinyl Alcohol)/Cellulose Nanocrystals Barrier Membranes”, J. Membrane Sci., 320, 248258(2008), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2008.04.009Search in Google Scholar

Pasquini, D., et al., “Extraction of Starch Nanocrystals and Cellulose Whiskers from Cassava Bagasse and their Applications as Reinforcing Agent in Natural Rubber”, Ind. Crops Prod., 32, 486490(2010), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.06.022Search in Google Scholar

Petersson, L., et al., “Biopolymer Based Nanocomposites: Comparing Layered Silicates and Microcrystalline Cellulose as Nanoreinforcement”, Compos. Sci. Technol., 66, 21872196(2006), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2005.12.010Search in Google Scholar

Pu, Y., et al., “Investigation into Nanocellulosics versus Acacia Reinforced Acrylic Films”, Composites Part B, 38, 360366(2007), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2006.07.008Search in Google Scholar

Roohani, M., et al., “Cellulose Whiskers Reinforced Polyvinyl Alcohol Copolymers Nanocomposites”, Eur. Polym. J., 44, 24892498(2008), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2008.05.024Search in Google Scholar

Sanchez-Garcia, M. D., et al., “Morphology and Water Barrier Properties of Nanobiocomposites of κ/ι-Hybrid Carrageenan and Cellulose Nanowhiskers”, J. Agric. Food Chem., 58, 1284712857(2010), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf102764e, PMid: 21073192Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Saxena, A., et al., “Novel Nanocellulosic Xylan Composite Film”, Composites Part B, 40, 727730(2009), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2009.05.003Search in Google Scholar

Siqueira, G., et al., “High Reinforcing Capability Cellulose Nanocrystals Extracted from Syngonanthus nitens (Capim Dourado)”, Cellulose, 17, 289298(2010), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10570-009-9384-zSearch in Google Scholar

Siqueira, G., et al., “Mechanical Properties of Natural Rubber Nanocomposites Reinforced with Cellulosic Nanoparticles Obtained from Combined Mechanical Shearing, and Enzymatic and Acid Hydrolysis of Sisal Fibers”, Cellulose, 18, 5765(2011), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10570-010-9463-1Search in Google Scholar

Teixeira, E. M., et al., “Cassava Bagasse Cellulose Nanofibrils Reinforced Thermoplastic Cassava Starch”, Carbohydr. Polym., 78, 422431(2009), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.04.034Search in Google Scholar

Trovatti, E., et al., “Novel Bacterial Cellulose-Acrylic Resin Nanocomposites”, Compos. Sci. Technol., 70, 11481153(2010), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2010.02.031Search in Google Scholar

Wang, Y., et al., “Effects of Cellulose Whiskers on Properties of Soy Protein Thermoplastics”, Macromol. Biosci., 6, 524531(2006), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mabi.200600034, PMid: 16921539Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Wang, Y., et al., “Role of Starch Nanocrystals and Cellulose Whiskers in Synergistic Reinforcement of Waterborne Polyurethane”, Carbohydr. Polym., 80, 665671(2010), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.10.043Search in Google Scholar

Woehl, M. A., et al., “Bionanocomposites of Thermoplastic Starch Reinforced with Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibres: Effect of Enzymatic Treatment on Mechanical Properties”, Carbohydr. Polym., 80, 866873(2010), DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.12.045Search in Google Scholar

Xu, S. H., et al., “Effects of Partial Replacement of Silica with Surface Modified Nanocrystalline Cellulose on Properties of Natural Rubber Nanocomposites”, eXPRESS Polym. Lett., 6, 1425(2012)10.3144/expresspolymlett.2012.3Search in Google Scholar

Received: 2012-01-24
Accepted: 2012-07-03
Published Online: 2013-04-06
Published in Print: 2012-11-01

© 2012, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich

Downloaded on 11.4.2026 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.3139/217.2603/html
Scroll to top button