The Question of the Effectiveness of Coptic Pharmacological Prescriptions

Anne Grons

doi:10.1515/tc-2021-0005

Article

The Question of the Effectiveness of Coptic Pharmacological Prescriptions

Anne Grons

Published/Copyright: July 1, 2021

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From the journal Trends in Classics Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

Coptic pharmacological texts offer a multitude of medical prescriptions concerning various afflictions, such as eye or skin irritations, affections of the viscera, or even psychological complaints. The content of these texts is medical, and in most cases bereft of any magical or religious ideas. They usually compile prescriptions according to symptoms and/or afflictions, without any further organising principle. Only a handful of texts are grouped according to the illness or to the medicinal plants used. Almost every prescription follows a pattern, with four formal elements: 1) the medical indication (or purpose), 2) the (basic) ingredients, 3) the procedure and application, and 4) the effects and/or the effectiveness of a remedy, or further information. In this article, I give an overview of the entire corpus of Coptic medical prescriptions, explore the four main elements, and especially the discussions of efficacy. I also examine the material in light of placebo research, to see whether something like a placebo effect may have influenced how the pharmacological texts were formulated.

Keywords: Placebo; Coptic; history of medicine; history of pharmacy; prescriptions

Appendix

(Coptic phrases have been standardized according to Sahidic.)

Tab. 2:

Expressions regarding effects or effectiveness

No	Coptic phrase	Translation	Reference (Collection, inv. no, no of prescription)
*“He/It will recover”-formula*
1	[]ⲛⲁⲗⲟ	[…] will recover.	Copenhagen, Egyptological Institute inv. 500, nos 1, 35
2	ϥⲛⲁⲗⲟ	He/It will recover.	Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, inv. 593a, no 1 (probably a prayer) Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, inv. 593b, no 5 Ann Arbor, Michigan MS 136, no 23 Berlin, Pap.-coll. inv. 880, no 1 Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 39, 68, 72, 73, 96, 114, 127, 130, 156, 161, 172, 213, 224, 225, 230 Copenhagen, Egyptological Institute inv. 500, nos 2, 13, 15, 17, 18, 24, 25, 36 London, BM inv. 27422, no 1 London, BM inv. 50216, nos 1, 2 Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli, IB.14.06–07, fasc. 113, nos 13, 15, 26, 34, 41, 42 Paris, Collège de France (unpublished), nos x+16, 19, 21, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52
3	ⲥⲛⲁⲗⲟ	She/It will recover.	Ann Arbor, Michigan MS 136, nos 12, 13, 21 Berlin, Pap.-Coll. Inv. 8109, no 5 Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 123, 124, 125, 129, 167 Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli, IB.14.06–07, fasc. 113, no 22 Paris, Collège de France (unpublished), nos x+14, 34, 48
4	ⲥⲉⲛⲁⲗⲟ	They will recover.	Ann Arbor, Michigan MS 136, nos 19, 22 Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 97, 170 Copenhagen, Egyptological Institute inv. 500, nos 7, 8, 26, 31 London, BM inv. 27422, no 2 London, BM inv. 32931, nos 2, 4 Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli, IB.14.06–07, fasc. 113, nos 10, 31, 44 Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France copte 132(5), fol.1, nos 4, 8
5	ϣⲁϥⲗⲟ	He/It will recover.	Berlin, Pap.-Coll. Inv. 8109, nos 3, 4 Berlin, Pap.-Coll. Inv. 8116+8117, nos 12, 13, 22 Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 14, 164, 171 Manchester, John Rylands Library inv. 104, no 3 Paris, Collège de France (unpublished), nos x+2, 3, 5, 9, 15, 20, 22, 36
6	ϣⲁⲥⲗⲟ	It will recover.	Paris, Collège de France (unpublished), nos x+8, 23
7	ϣⲁⲩⲗⲟ	They will recover.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 6, 19, 38, 56, 57, 58, 81, 86, 108, 115, 144, 153, 154, 168, 176, 189, 196, 207, 231 Copenhagen, Egyptological Institute inv. 500, nos 3, 30 Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli, IB.14.06–07, fasc. 113, nos 5, 19, 20, 21 Paris, Collège de France (unpublished), nos x+11, 30, 39, 40, 56
8	ⲉⲕⲁⲗⲟ ⲉⲕⲟⲩⲱⲙ	You will recover, if you eat.	Manchester, John Rylands Library inv. 106, no 1
9	ϥⲛⲁⲙⲧⲟⲛ	He will recover.	Copenhagen, Egyptological Institute inv. 500, no 14 London, BM inv. 32931, no 1 New York, MMA inv. 12.180.79, no 1
10	ⲥⲉⲛⲁⲙⲧⲟⲛ	They will recover.	Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli, IB.14.06–07, fasc. 113, nos 7, 8, 9
11	ϥⲛⲁⲟⲩϫⲁⲓ	He will recover.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 69
12	]ⲉⲣⲉⲡⲉⲩϫⲁⲓ ⲧⲁϩⲟⲟⲩ	[…] and health/recovery attains them.	Berlin, Pap.-coll. Inv. 22061, no 1
“'proof' phrases” and general quality labels
13	(ⲟⲩ) ⲇⲟⲕⲓⲙⲱⲛ (ⲡⲉ)	(It is) tested.	Ann Arbor, Michigan MS 136, nos 2, 4, 27 Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 30, 91, 122, 226
14	ⲁⲓⲧⲟⲕⲓⲙⲁⲍⲉ ⲙⲙⲟϥ ⲁⲓϭⲛ ⲙⲙⲉ ⲙⲛⲟⲩⲟⲛ ⲉϥⲧⲉⲧⲱⲛ ⲉⲣⲟϥ	I tested it and I found it truthful. Nothing equals it.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 109
15	ⲁⲛⲇⲟⲕⲓⲙⲁⲍⲉ ⲙⲙⲟϥ ⲕⲁⲗⲱⲥ	We tested it thoroughly.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 53
16	ⲁⲩⲧⲟⲕⲓⲙⲁⲍⲉ ⲙⲙⲟⲥ ϩⲓⲧⲛ ⲟⲩⲛⲟϭ ⲛⲁⲣⲭⲏⲁⲧⲣⲟⲥ	It was tested by the great senior physician.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 56
17	ⲉϥϫⲟⲛⲧ ⲅⲁⲣ ⲛⲧⲟⲧⲉⲛ ⲁⲛⲇⲟⲕⲓⲙⲁⲍⲉ ⲙⲙⲟϥ ⲁⲛϭⲛⲧϥ ⲉⲣ ⲛⲟϥⲣⲉ (for…)	For we test it, we ourselves tested it and found it useful for …	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 80 (compare also the fragmentary prescription no 6)
18	ⲁⲛϫⲟⲛⲧⲥ ⲅⲁⲣ ⲁⲛϭⲏⲛⲧⲥ ⲙⲙⲉ	Indeed, we tested it and found it truthful.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 26
19	(ⲉ)ⲛⲁⲛⲟⲩ⸗ ⲉⲙⲁⲧⲉ/ⲕⲁⲗⲱⲥ (…)	(It) is very good.	TT157, Fj. 470 (P. TT157 470), no 2 Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 45, 47, 51, 53, 103, 105, 109, 187
20	ⲕⲁⲗⲟⲛ	Good	TT157, Fj. 470 (P. TT157 470), no 4 Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 210
21	ⲕⲛⲁⲣ ϣⲡⲏⲣⲉ	You will be amazed.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 151, 222
22	… ⲉⲥϩⲁ ϣⲡⲏⲣⲉ	(A certain remedy) which is marvelous.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 134
23	ⲟⲩⲛⲟϭ ⲛⲡⲁϩⲣⲉ	A great medicine	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 117
24	ⲟⲩⲛⲟϭ ⲧⲉ ⲧⲉⲥϭⲟⲙ	Great is its power.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 122
25	ⲟⲩⲛ ⲟⲩⲛⲟϭ ⲛϭⲟⲙ ⲛϩⲏⲧϥ	A great power is within it.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 12
26	ⲟⲩⲥⲁⲓ ⲡⲉ ⲙⲡϣⲱⲙ (ⲕⲁⲓ) ⲧⲉⲡⲣⲱ	It is good in summer and winter.	Manchester, John Rylands Library inv. 106, no 4
27	ϣⲁⲩⲱⲫⲉⲗⲉⲓ	It will help (to heal).	Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli, IB.14.06–07, fasc. 113, no 6
28	… ⲉⲥϯ ⲥⲟⲉⲓⲧ	(A certain remedy) which is famous.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 149
29	ⲁϥϫⲱⲕ	It is perfect.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 109 ?, SBKopt I 002, no 2
Phrases concerning specific effects
30	ϥⲛⲁⲱⲗ ⲛⲧⲉⲩⲛⲟⲩ	It (sc. the wound) will immediately vanish.	Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, inv. 593b, no 4
31	ⲥⲛⲁⲙⲓⲥⲉ	She will give birth.	Paris, Collège de France (unpublished), no x+68
32	ϣⲁⲣⲉⲧⲉϥⲥⲧⲏⲗⲏ ⲧⲣⲉⲟⲩⲗⲟ	Its (sc. the demon’s) stela let them recover.	Ann Arbor, Michigan MS 136, no 14
33	ϣⲁⲣⲉ[ⲡⲉ]ⲥⲁⲩⲁⲛ ⲥⲱⲧϥ []	Her skin colour will be purified^? [again^?].	Copenhagen, Egyptological Institute inv. 500, no 34
34	ϣⲁⲣⲉⲡⲉⲥϣⲏⲣⲉ ‧ ⲉⲣⲁⲗⲁⲩ	Her son will become white^?.	Paris, Collège de France (unpublished), no x+53
35	ϣⲁϥⲁⲙⲁϩⲧⲉ ⲙⲡⲉϩⲣⲉⲩⲙⲁ ⲛⲙⲙⲁϩⲧ	He will overcome the rheuma of the intestines.	Copenhagen, Egyptological Institute inv. 500, no 5
36	ϣⲁϥⲕⲁⲑⲁⲣⲓⲍⲉ ⲙⲡⲣⲟ ⲙⲡⲉⲕϩ[ⲏ]ⲧ ϣⲁϥⲱⲫⲉⲗⲓⲉ ⲛⲧⲁⲡⲉ	It will purify the mouth of your heart. It is (also) useful for the head.	Manchester, John Rylands Library inv. 106, no 3
37	ϣⲁϥⲕⲁⲑⲁⲣⲓⲍⲉ ⲙⲙⲟⲟⲩ ⲛϥⲙⲁϩⲟⲩ	It will purify and fill them (sc. abscesses).	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 142
38	ϣⲁϥⲥⲱⲧⲙ []	He will hear (again).	Paris, Collège de France (unpublished), no x+63
39	ϣⲁϥϭⲱ	It will stop.	Berlin, Pap.-Coll. Inv. 8116+8117, no 24
40	ϣⲁⲩⲗⲟ ⲉⲩⲟ ⲛϩⲣⲉⲩⲙⲁ ⲛⲥⲉⲥⲱⲧⲙ ⲛⲕⲉⲥⲟⲡ	They (sc. ears, nose) will stop being rheumatic and they will hear again.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 108
41	ϣⲁⲩⲥⲱⲧⲙ	They will hear (again).	Copenhagen, Egyptological Institute inv. 500, no 12
42	ϣⲁⲩⲥⲟⲟϩⲉ ⲛⲥⲉⲟⲩⲱⲛ	They (sc. the scabs) will vanish and open.	Copenhagen, Egyptological Institute inv. 500, no 27
43	ⲙⲉⲣⲉⲫⲗⲉⲕⲙⲁ ϣⲱⲡⲉ ⲛϩⲏⲧⲟⲩ	No inflammation can develop in them.	Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli, IB.14.06–07, fasc. 113, no 18
44	ϣⲁⲩϩⲉ	They (sc. thorns) will fall (out).	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 214
45	ϥⲛⲁⲱⲃϣ	He will sleep.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 95
46	ϣⲁϥⲱⲃϣ	He will sleep.	Berlin, Pap.-Coll. Inv. 8109, no 2
47	ⲧⲉⲩⲱⲃϣ ⲛⲧⲉⲩⲛⲟⲩ	They will heal (lit.: forget) immediately.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 220
48	ⲕⲥⲁⲧ ⲟⲩⲗⲁⲁⲩ ⲉϩⲣⲁⲓ ⲡⲉⲕϩⲏⲧ ⲛⲑⲉ ⲛⲟⲩⲥⲟⲟⲩϩⲉ	You vomit something out of your mouth like an egg.	Manchester, John Rylands Library inv. 106, no 2
49	ϥⲛⲁⲕⲁ ⲃⲟⲗ ⲛⲡϩⲓⲕ	He will vomit the poison (lit.: spell).	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 229
50	ϥⲛⲁⲕⲁ ⲃⲟⲗ ⲛⲛⲉϩⲉⲗⲙⲓⲥ	He will vomit the worms.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 111
51	ϥⲛⲁⲉⲓⲱⲣϩ	He will see (again).	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 188
52	ϥⲛⲁⲉⲓⲱⲣϩ ⲕⲁⲗⲱⲥ	He will see well (again).	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 201
53	ϣⲁⲩⲛⲁⲩ	They (sc. eyes) will see (again).	Paris, Collège de France (unpublished), no x+44
54	ϣⲁⲩⲣ ⲟⲩⲟⲉⲓⲛ ⲕⲁⲗⲱⲥ	They (sc. eyes) will shine well (again).	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 8, 11
55	ⲥϥⲱϭⲉ ⲉϩⲣⲁⲓ	It (sc. abscess) will burst.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 29
56	ϣⲁⲥⲥⲱⲗⲡ	It (sc. abscess) will burst.	?, SBKopt I 005, no 1
57	ϣⲁⲥⲡⲱⲣϫ	It (sc. abscess) will open (lit.: divide).	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 21, 25
58	ϣⲁϥⲕⲉϩⲕⲱϩⲟⲩ ⲛϥⲧⲣⲉⲩϣⲟⲟⲩⲉ	It causes them (sc. wounds) to heal up/smooth and dries them.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 66
59	ϣⲁⲥⲕⲉϩⲕⲱϩⲥ	It causes it (sc. wound) to heal up/smooth.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 15
60	ⲥⲛⲁϣⲟⲟⲩⲉ	It (sc. Wamsir) will dry.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 127
61	ϣⲁⲩϣⲟⲟⲩⲉ	They (sc. wounds) will dry.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 18, 37
62	ϣⲁⲩⲗⲟ ⲧⲟⲩϣⲟⲟⲩⲉ	They (sc. body parts) will recover and dry.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 231
63	… ⲉϣⲁϥⲙⲟⲩϩ ϩⲛ ⲟⲩϭⲉⲡⲏ	(A certain remedy) that fills quickly.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 139
64	ⲉⲥⲙⲟⲩϩ ⲉⲥⲕⲁϩⲕϩ	(A certain remedy) that fills up and causes to heal up/smooth.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 119
65	ⲉ]ⲩⲙⲉϩ ⲛⲉⲣⲟⲧⲉ	They will fill up with milk.	Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France copte 132(5), fol.1, no 10
66	ⲥⲉⲛⲁⲙⲟⲩϩ	They (sc. breasts) will fill up (with milk).	Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France copte 132(5), fol.1, no 9
67	ⲥⲉⲛⲁⲣⲱⲧ (ⲛⲕⲉⲥⲟⲡ)	They (sc. eyelashes) will grow (again).	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 101, 107
68	ϣⲁⲩⲣⲱⲧ	They (sc. eyelashes) will grow.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 23
69	ⲙⲉⲩⲣⲱⲧ (ⲛⲕⲉⲥⲟⲡ)	They (sc. eyelashes) will not grow (again).	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), nos 98, 100, 200
70	ⲙⲉⲩⲣⲱⲧ ⲛⲟ[ⲩ]ⲱϩⲙ	They (sc. eyelashes) will not grow again.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 99
71	ⲥⲉⲛⲁⲉⲓ	They (sc. worms) will go.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 227
72	ⲥⲛⲁⲉⲓ ϩⲛ ⲟⲩϭⲉⲡⲏ	It (sc. tooth) will come out quickly.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 184
73	ⲥⲛⲁⲉⲓ ⲉϩⲣⲁⲓ	It (sc. abscess) will vanish.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 152
74	ⲥⲛⲁⲉⲓ ⲙⲁⲩⲁⲥ	It (sc. abscess) will vanish by itself.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 26
75	ⲥⲛⲁⲉⲓ ⲉⲡⲉⲥⲏⲧ	It (sc. “wind”) will go down.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 74
76	ⲥⲉⲛⲁⲉⲓ ⲉⲡⲉⲥⲏⲧ (2x)	They (sc. worms) will come down.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 110
77	ⲡϥⲛⲧ ⲛⲁⲉⲓ [ⲉϩⲣⲁⲓ]	The worm will come [down].	Paris, Collège de France (unpublished), no x+71
78	ϥⲛⲁⲣⲱϣⲉ ⲛⲟⲩⲥⲟⲡ ⲉⲡⲉⲃⲟⲧ ⲉϥⲛⲁϥⲓ ϣⲱⲛⲉ ⲛⲓⲙ ⲉⲃⲟⲗ ϩⲛ ⲡⲃⲁⲗ	Once a month will be enough and it will remove each disease in the eyes.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 94
79	ϣⲁϥϥⲓ ⲡⲙⲟⲟⲩ ϩⲛ ⲛⲃⲁⲗ	It will remove the “water” in the eyes.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 91
80	ϥⲛⲁⲛⲧⲥ ⲉϩⲣⲁⲓ	It will remove it (sc. thorn).	Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, inv. 593b, no 3
81	ϣⲁϥⲛ ⲛⲁⲗϩⲁⲙ ⲉⲃⲟⲗ ⲙⲛ ⲛⲁⲣⲁⲡⲣⲓⲧⲉ	It will remove the Alham (sc. “the rotten”) and the Araprite (sc. “hailstone”).	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 55
82	ϣⲁⲥⲉⲓⲛⲉ ⲉⲡⲉⲥⲏⲧ ⲛⲧⲙⲟⲥ ⲙⲙⲟⲟⲩ ‧ ⲛⲑⲏ ⲛⲟⲩⲙⲟⲟⲩ ⲉⲁϥⲉⲓ ⲉⲃⲟⲗ ⲛϩⲏⲧⲟⲩ ‧ ⲉϥⲱ ⲛⲁⲩⲁⲛ ⲛⲥⲛⲟϥ	It will bring down the “water-mos” like water that came out of them, being of a bloody colour.	Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli, IB.14.06–07, fasc. 113, no 28
83	Arabic marginal note	Also for …^? (…) and it will be destroyed^?.	Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli, IB.14.06–07, fasc. 113, no 2
Phrases that refer to divine agents or human authorities
84	ⲫ(ⲛⲟⲩ)ϯ ⲡⲉⲧⲥⲟⲟⲩⲛ ϫⲉ ⲛⲁⲛⲟⲩ ⲡⲓⲡⲁϩⲣⲉ ⲙⲁⲧⲉ	God knows that this remedy is very good.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 157
85	ⲥⲛⲁⲗⲟ ϩⲛ ⲡⲟⲩⲱϣ ⲛⲡⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ	She will recover so God will.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 125
86	ϣⲁϥⲗⲟ ϩⲛ ⲧϭⲟⲙ ⲛⲫⲓⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ	He will recover with God’s power.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 171 (compare London, BM inv. 27422, no 2?)
87	ϥⲛⲁⲗⲟ ϩⲛ ⲧϭⲟⲙ ⲛⲡϫⲟⲉⲓⲥ	He/It will recover with the Lord’s power.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 156
88	ⲟⲩⲕⲟⲗⲗⲓⲟⲛ ⲛⲧⲉⲁⲡⲁ ⲕⲩⲗⲓⲗⲟⲥ ⲡⲥⲟⲫⲟⲥ ⲛⲁⲣⲭⲏⲁⲧⲣⲟⲥ … ⲁⲩⲧⲟⲕⲓⲙⲁⲍⲉ ⲙⲙⲟⲥ ϩⲓⲧⲛ ⲟⲩⲛⲟϭ ⲛⲁⲣⲭⲏⲁⲧⲣⲟⲥ	A collyrium of Apa Kyrillos, the wise senior physician. (…) It was tested by a great senior physician.	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 56
89	ⲟⲩⲕⲟⲗⲗⲓⲟⲛ ⲙⲟⲛⲁϩⲩⲙⲉⲣⲟⲛ ⲕⲟⲗⲗⲟⲩⲑⲟⲥ ⲁⲣⲭⲏⲁⲧⲣⲟⲩ ⲕⲩ ⲙⲁⲣⲧⲏⲣⲟⲩ	A one-day-collyrium of Kollouthos, senior physician and martyr	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 211
90	ⲛⲧⲁⲛϭⲛⲧϥ ⲉϥⲥⲏϩ ϩⲛ ⲛϫⲱⲱⲙⲉ ⲛⲛⲁⲣⲭⲁⲓⲟⲛ	We found it written in the books of the ancient (physicians/times).	Cairo, IFAO (P. Méd. Copt.), no 65

Abbreviations

CD: Crum, Coptic Dictionary
LSJ: Liddell – Scott – Jones, Greek-English Lexicon

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Published Online: 2021-07-01

Published in Print: 2021-06-26

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Articles in the same Issue

https://doi.org/10.1515/tc-2021-0005

Keywords for this article

Placebo; Coptic; history of medicine; history of pharmacy; prescriptions