Startseite Phthalates, bisphenols and per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances migration from food packaging into food: a systematic review
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Phthalates, bisphenols and per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances migration from food packaging into food: a systematic review

  • Madeline Tanzer , Thomas Boissiere-O’Neill ORCID logo , Peter D. Sly und Dwan Vilcins ORCID logo EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 17. Juli 2025
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Reviews on Environmental Health
Aus der Zeitschrift Reviews on Environmental Health Band 40 Heft 3

Abstract

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals are commonly found in food due to their migration from plastic packaging. Despite their functional benefits, these additives can disrupt the endocrine system, leading to several adverse health outcomes. This review aims to examine the migration of phthalates, bisphenols, and per-and-polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from plastic food packaging into food substances. Six electronic databases were systematically screened for observational, case reports, or experimental studies investigating any food for human consumption exposed to food packaging. Sixty-seven studies, including 5,378 samples, were included. Phthalates and bisphenols consistently migrated from food packaging. PFAS migration was also detected but too few studies were published to draw conclusions. Migration rates were influenced by factors such as temperature, exposure time, and food composition, with high-fat or acidic foods leading to higher migration rates. Based on a standard Western Diet, 713.8 µg of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate, 347.7 µg of di-n-butyl phthalate, 17.3 µg of butyl-benzyl phthalate, 35,250 µg of di-iso-decyl phthalate, and 65.4 µg of other plasticizers, totaling 36,349.2 µg, could be consumed from food packaging daily. However, these estimates may not be generalizable to other dietary patterns, such as Mediterranean or plant-based diets. Further research into low migration or safer alternative to current plasticizers, alongside regulatory efforts considering potential exposure via food contact materials may help reduce risks associated with endocrine-disrupting chemicals in food packaging.

Keywords: plasticizers; bisphenols; PFAS; migration; food packaging

Introduction

Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can occur through medical devices, inhalation of indoor air and dust, dermal absorption of personal care products and ingestion through dust and diet [1]. Among these, dietary exposure is considered a major source of exposure due to the migration of chemicals from plastic packaging, such as plastic wraps, storage containers, and the lining of cans and bottles, into food [2]. Food packaging mainly comprises plastics, which are organic polymers mixed with additives like bisphenols, phthalates, and PFAS to improve their properties [3]. Despite their functional benefits in terms of flexibility and durability, these additives can mimic and disrupt the endocrine system [4]. Endocrine-disrupting chemical exposure has been associated with several adverse health outcomes, including developmental abnormalities [5], reproductive disorders [6], and neurodevelopmental outcomes [7]. This is particularly alarming considering the annual global plastic use, estimated at 322 million tons, highlighting the scale of potential exposure through plastic [8].

Previous studies have tangibly demonstrated food contamination from EDC in food packaging through chemical assays and experimental studies [9], [10], [11]. Moreover, a recent systematic review has found that a substantial proportion of detected chemicals in food contact materials are not currently recognized as such, indicating a strong need for further research and an adequate regulatory framework [12]. In the European Union, for instance, the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) and the Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP) regulations provide a framework for identifying and restricting substances classified as carcinogenic, mutagenic, or toxic to reproduction [13]. Furthermore, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has recently re-evaluated phthalates, establishing a group tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 50 μg/kg body weight per day [14]. Regarding bisphenol A (BPA), the EFSA introduced a considerable revision of the TDI, from 4 μg/kg to 0.2 ng/kg body weight/day [15].

Given the extensive use of phthalates, bisphenols, and PFAS in food packaging, there is a need to understand their migration dynamics into food substances [16], 17]. Therefore, this review aimed to systematically synthesize the existing literature on the migration of these specific EDCs from various packaging types into different food products.

Methods

Search strategy and selection criteria

This systematic review adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and was registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF.IO/5KB3E). We included studies investigating any food for human consumption exposed to food packaging. Study design was restricted to observational, case reports, or experimental studies. We excluded studies: (i) that used simulants instead of food products as our focus was on estimates of migration rates in products consumed by the public; (ii) looked exclusively at bottled water; (iii) in which the primary aim was to develop or report a new analytical method; (iv) that examined infant feeding bottles, plastic contact during food preparation or food contact materials; (v) in a language other than English.

PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched on 28th July 2021. A grey literature search was also validated and performed using OpenGrey, OAIster, and Google on 29 July 2021, using the advanced search features on Google. The search was limited to the “.gov” domains and the first five pages of results, after which the publications were no longer. relevant We used the following search terms: (“di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate”, “DEHP”, “diisononyl phthalate”, “DINP”, “butyl benzyl phthalate”, “BBP”, “dibutyl phthalate”, “DBP”, “diisodecyl phthalate”, “DIDP”, “bisphenol A”, “BPA”, “perfluoroalkyl substances”, “polyfluoroalkyl substances”, “PFAS”, “PFOA”, “PFOS”) AND (“food packaging”, “food containers”, “plastic containers”, “migration”, “leaching”, “food wrapping”, “food wrap”, “polyethylene wrap film”) AND (“food”, “meat”, “fruit”, “vegetables”, “processed food”, “dairy, milk products”, “ultra-processed foods”, “grains”, “beverages”, “nuts”, “seeds”, “legumes”, “packaged food”, “snacks”, “water”, “soda”, “soft drink”, “juice”, “tinned food”) NOT (“soil pollution”, “fertility”, “formaldehyde”, “cancer”, “hearing impairment”, “agricultural products”, “seawater”, “diabetes”, “toys”, “human milk”, “dental materials”, “dust”, “soil”, “ovarian function”, “vaccine”) (Table S1).

Study selection and data extraction

Study selection and data extraction were conducted on Covidence. Two reviewers (MT, DV) independently reviewed the title and abstracts and resolved conflicts through discussion. Next, two authors (MT, PS) independently screened full-text studies for inclusion. Any disagreements were resolved through discussion. One author (MT) completed data extraction and was checked by a second author (DV), using 41 domains predetermined by the authors. Once reviewed, data was exported into Excel for synthesis. Last, studies were classified based on packaging type. The multiple packing type category included studies that analyzed various plastic packaging types or where specific packaging types could not be verified.

Quality appraisal

The risk of bias within each study was assessed using a revised version of the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Quasi-Experimental Tool [18]. One author (MT) checked the included studies against the tool with a second author (DV), confirming the judgments of the first author. Each study was judged on eight questions using “Yes,” “No”, “Unclear,” or “Not Applicable”. Any judgment discrepancies were discussed between the two authors. An assessment based on the explanation detailed in the JBI tool allowed an overall grading of each study’s risk of bias. The risk of bias assessment for individual studies is shown in Table S2.

Estimated daily consumption

We created a sample daily diet to estimate the level of human exposure from plasticizer migration out of food packaging and estimated plasticizer intake based on the included studies. A registered dietician (MT) created a menu over a day based on an average Western diet to assess the cumulative intake of chemicals from dietary goods. First, using food samples from the included studies, we compiled typical food combinations (e.g., milk, cereal, coffee, cake, tuna, rice, and vegetables) that may indicate a typical Western dietary pattern. Second, we standardized portions as serving sizes using the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating [19]. Third, we extracted the results from the included studies reporting these foods and calculated the intake of endocrine-disrupting compounds within a serving size.

Results

We identified 2,621 studies during the search. After removing 1,235 duplicates, 1,385 studies were screened for title and abstract. After assessing 136 full texts for inclusion, we excluded 67 studies primarily for having the wrong study design, not measuring chemicals in food products, not assessing plastic exposure, or examining the wrong chemicals. Our systematic review included 67 studies (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses flow diagram of literature search and selection criteria.
Figure 1:

Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses flow diagram of literature search and selection criteria.

Study characteristics

Among 67 included studies, 18 (27 %) examined cans [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36], [37], 13 (19 %) examined plastic containers [38], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43], [44], [45], [46], [47], [48], [49], [50], 11 (16 %) examined plastic bottles [51], [52], [53], [54], [55], [56], [57], [58], [59], [60], [61], 8 (12 %) studied multiple packaging types [62], [63], [64], [65], [66], [67], [68], [69], 5 (7 %) examined lids [9], [70], [71], [72], [73], 4 (6 %) examined plastic wrap [74], [75], [76], [77], 4 (6 %) examined paperboard [78], [79], [80], [81], 2 (3 %) examined printing inks [82], 83] and 2 (3 %) examined plastic bags [84], 85]. Overall, 62 (93 %) studies reported EDCs migrated from packaging into food, with cans, plastic wraps, printing inks, plastic bags, and paperboard packaging showing evidence of migration in 100 % of studies (Figure 2). Number of food samples tested ranged from 3 to 388 (median=42 samples). The included studies varied in the composition of the packaging examined, but polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (n=18), epoxy resins (n=18), and polyethylene (n=12) were the most frequently studied.

Figure 2: Number of studies reporting EDC migration by food packaging type blue: Migration present. Orange: Migration absent.
Figure 2:

Number of studies reporting EDC migration by food packaging type blue: Migration present. Orange: Migration absent.

Quality appraisal

Quality appraisal of the included studies showed that 100 % of studies reliably measured analytes, 75 % (n=52) demonstrated that migration preceded contamination, 71 % (n=49) measured multiple samples, 64 % (n=44) analyzed control samples in a similar manner to the assays, and 62 % (n=43) had comparable samples. However, 46 % (n=32) of studies did not use a control sample in their analysis (Table S2).

Cans

18 studies examined cans, all reporting migration of bisphenols and analogs into food [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36], [37]. One thousand 76 samples were analyzed across dairy, meat, fruit, vegetables, grains, pre-packaged, and discretionary foods (Table S3). 14 studies reported bisphenol A (BPA) migration into food. BPA rates varied widely depending on the sample, ranging from non-detectable to 313.41 μg/kg [25], 27]. Variations in migration were due to storage time, food composition, preservation techniques, storage temperature, and pH of the contacting liquid.

Canned fish was the most studied food product for chemical migration. Bisphenol A Di-Glycidyl Ether (BADGE), Bisphenol F Di-Glycidyl Ether (BFDGE), and the by-product Cyclo-di-(bisphenol-A-mono-glycidyl-ether) (cyclo-DiBa) displayed varying levels of migration [20], 21], 23], 26], 28], 36], 37]. Higher concentrations were reported in oil-based mediums [36]. Furthermore, there was increased migration in relation to storage procedures and sterilization temperatures [31], and, one study observed a steady increase in plasticizer content over a 360-day storage period [32].

Plastic containers

14 studies evaluated the migration of plasticizers from plastic containers into various foods [38], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43, [45], [46], [47], [48], [49], [50]. Of these studies, one (7 %) did not find EDC migration from containers into food [44]. Chemicals detected included phthalates, BPA, and PFAS (Table S4). One thousand two hundred 50 samples were analyzed across numerous food categories (meat, grains, legumes, vegetables, fruit, dairy, seafood, pre-packaged foods, and discretionary foods).

Phthalate levels varied across different food types. Butyl-benzyl phthalate (BBzP) ranged from 0.2 μg/kg in mackerel to 11.5 μg/kg in fats and oils [38], 42], di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) ranged from 0.043 mg/kg in rice to 0.88 mg/kg in cake [42], 50], while di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) ranged from 0.016 mg/kg in fruit and vegetables to 2.81 mg/kg in cake [49], 50]. Reported migration levels for DEHP showed greater variability compared to BBzP and DnBP.

Bisphenols had lower migration rates, with BPA ranging from 0.006 mg/kg in rice [48] to 0.034 mg/kg in chicken and vegetable samples [42]. Higher migration rates were observed in fatty foods like cake, oily fish, oil, fats, and meat products.

Plastic bottles

We identified 11 studies that examined the migration of EDCs from plastic bottles into food products, with 9 (81 %) reporting migration into food [51], [52], [53], [54], [55], [56], [57], [58], [59], [60], [61]. The included studies examined 446 samples across dairy, meat, fruit, vegetables, grains, pre-packaged, and discretionary foods (Table S5).

Seven phthalates and BPA were prominent in the included studies. Phthalates ranged from 0.6 μg/L of di-octyl phthalate (DOP) in apple juice [52] to 27.5 μg/kg of di-ethyl phthalate (DEP) in milk [56]. BPA levels ranged from undetected in milk [56] to 780 μg/kg in olive oil [51]. Both plasticizers showed increased migration into foods with a higher fat content [51], 55], 56], 61].

Only one out of four studies on vegetable oils found migration of plasticizers [51]. No migration was detected for oils, such as frying, sunflower, corn, or grapeseed oil [54], 69]. All three studies on acidic liquids reported plasticizer migration [52], 53], 59]. Plastic bottles showed significantly higher rates of migration than glass bottles [53]. Increased migration was observed in samples stored for longer periods and exposed to higher temperatures or sunlight.

Multiple packaging types

Eight studies with multiple packaging types investigated the propensity of EDCs to migrate into food, all of which reported migration [62], [63], [64], [65], [66], [67], [68], [69]. One thousand two hundred 62 samples were included in this category, with products ranging from pre-packaged foods, dairy, oils, seafood, grains, meat, fruit, vegetables, and pulses (Table S6).

BPA levels ranged from<0.01 ng/g in meat, eggs, and dairy [64] to 650 μg/kg in legumes [69], with higher migration in foods with higher fat content. One study found that apples contained high levels of DnBP (86.012 μg/kg), BBzP (45.31 μg/kg), and DEHP (170.58 μg/kg) due to adhesive labeling [62]. On the other hand, avocados showed BBzP migration of up to 4.16 mg/kg in the peel and 0.188 mg/kg in the pulp. Plasticizers were found to permeate the thin skin of apples more easily, while the flesh of avocados showed an even dispersion of plasticizers due to the lipid content.

Container lids

The inner side of the glass jar lid is often lined with PVC to ensure adequate sealing and functionality. Five studies investigated whether lid gaskets pose any risk of plasticizer migration into food products [9], [70], [71], [72], [73]. Of these studies, four (80 %) identified migration from the lid gasket into food products stored within the jar. 284 samples across food in oil preparations featuring sauces, seafood, vegetables, dairy, and nuts were analyzed (Table S7).

Phthalates, including di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP) and DEHP, were found in some food samples. Pesto sauce and vegetable-based products were the most examined dietary goods. Phthalates were commonly examined in pesto sauce, with both DiBP (0.2 mg/kg) and DEHP (1 mg/kg–600 mg/kg) being detected [9], 73].

Several factors affected the migration of plasticizers from lid gaskets into food. These include product age, sterilization, conditions, jar shaking, the amount of PVC gasket in contact with the food, the distribution of PVC inside the lid, and the seal properties [9], 70], 72]. Free oil on top of the product in contact with the gasket increased plasticizer concentrations in the food [9]. However, emulsified oil in the product did not have the same migration rates.

Plastic wraps

Five studies examined the migration of EDC from plastic wrap into food products, with 100 % reporting the migration of plasticizers into food [74], [75], [76], [77]. 265 samples were analyzed across dairy, meat, fruit, vegetables, and discretionary foods (Table S8).

Cheese showed variable DEHP migration, ranging from 0.29 mg/kg to 15 mg/kg [74]. Potato crisps had the lowest plasticizer content, with only 0.1 mg/kg of DnBP [76]. Fat content, contact time, and repeated film contact increased plasticizer migration.

Paperboard packaging

Four studies investigated the migration of EDCs from cardboard packaging into various foods [78], [79], [80], [81]. All four studies (100 %) found that phthalates or PFAS migrated from paperboard into food. The included studies examined 112 samples across grain, pastry, and dairy products (Table S9). PFAS and precursors were detected in food, with the highest migration in milk powder and the lowest in cereals. The difference in migration rates can be attributed to the fat content of the food items [81].

Different plasticizers migrated at different rates. DnBP ranged from 0.8 μg/kg [78] to 1 mg/kg [79], while DiBP ranged from 0.22 mg/kg [80] to 2.6 mg/kg [79]. Such differences can be partially explained by storage time, as the highest levels of DiBP found in food samples correlated with the longest exposure time (four months) [79]. However, differences between the migration rates are likely due to their stability within the plastic matrix.

Food composition played a role in enhancing the migration of plasticizers from paperboard. In a study of baked goods, a marmalade pastry sample after 15 days of storage carried a significantly higher migration rate than other pastry types [78]. This is likely due to the direct contact of the sticky surface of the marmalade pastry being able to keep contact with the box’s surface. This contact appears to allow a higher migration rate than the sugar-coated biscuit, puff pastry, and Danish pastry and appears more influential than the fat content of the samples.

Printing inks

Two studies investigated migration from printing inks and reported migration into food [82], 83]. Three hundred 57 samples across meat-based products were analyzed, with the primary chemicals measured being DnBP and DEHP.

Migration rates were significantly influenced by storage time and temperature, with storage time having the most prominent effect (Table S10). DEHP had the highest migration rates, ranging from 0.58 μg/g [82], 83], to 28.2 mg/kg in a sample of meat stored for 28 days at 4 °C [83]. Meanwhile, DnBP had lower migration rates, ranging from 0.06 μg/g in a gothaer salami sample with 30 % fat content [82] to 11.11 mg/kg in a meat sample with 30 % fat content stored for 28 days [83].

Plastic bags

Two studies investigated the migration of phthalates from plastic bags into food [84], 85], with both reporting migration. Three hundred 26 samples across meat, grain, vegetable, fish, dairy, and pre-packaged products were analyzed, with the most prominent plasticizers measured being DnBP and DEHP (Table S11).

Higher fat content and storage times significantly influenced the migration rate of phthalates into food. Both DEHP and DnBP were detected but not in all food samples examined. DnBP ranged from non-detectable in a meat sample with 10 % fat on the first day of storage but increased to 7.95 mg/kg in a 50 % fat sample after 28 days of storage [85]. Similarly, DEHP ranged from non-detectable in a meat sample with 10 % fat on the first day of storage to 11.67 mg/kg in a sample with 50 % fat after 28 days of storage [85]. The same trend was found in cereal samples with the lowest fat content, reporting the lowest migration of phthalates.

Estimated daily consumption

A typical daily menu following a standard Western diet [86] could expose individuals to potentially high amounts of plasticizers (Table 1). Specifically, using migration rates from the included studies, a standard Western diet has the potential to expose individuals to 713.8 µg of DEHP, 347.7 µg of DnBP, 17.3 µg of BBzP, 35,250 µg of di-iso-decyl phthalate (DiDP), and 65.4 µg of other plasticizers, resulting in a total daily consumption of 36,349.2 µg.

Table 1:

Sample menu showing estimated daily consumption.

Food product DEHP DnBP BBzP DiDP Other Total
Breakfast
Cereal (60 g) ∑bisphenol

0.07 µg [65]		 0.07 µg
Milk (250 mL) 0.26 µg [56] 0.09 µg [56] DEP: 0.57 µg [56]

DMP: 0.11 µg [56]		 1.03 µg
Morning tea
Cake (40 g) 209.2 µg [50] 101.6 µg [50] 310.8 µg
Coffee with milk (250 mL) 0.26 µg [56] 0.09 µg [56] 0.35 µg
Lunch
Tuna (100 g) BADGE: 3.4 µg [24] 53.4 µg
Vegetables (150 g) 2.4 µg [49] 0.045 µg [49] 2.4 µg
Rice (125 g) 5.3 µg [42] 3.5 µg [42] BPA: 5.87 µg [42] 14.7 µg
Afternoon tea
Apple (150 g) 229.5 µg [62] 12.9 µg [62] 6.8 µg [62] 249.2 µg
Nuts (30 g) BPE: 0.37 µg [29] 0.37 µg
Olives (50 g) 35,250 µg [9] 35,250 µg
Dinner
Pre-packaged meal (300 g) 43.2 µg [41] 21.9 µg [41] 65.1 µg
Supper
Chocolate (25 g) 192.5 µg [76] DCHP: 5 µg [76] 197.5 µg
Apple (150 g) 229.5 µg [62] 12.9 µg [62] 6.8 µg [62] 249.2 µg
TOTAL 713.8 µg 347.7 µg 17.3 µg 35,250 µg 65.4 µg 36,394.2 µg

  1. BADGE, bisphenol A diglycidyl ether; BBzP, butyl benzyl phthalate; BPE, bisphenol E; DAP, di-allyl phthalate; DCHP, di-cyclohexyl phthalate; DEHP, di-ethylhexyl phthalate; DEP, di-ethyl phthalate; DiBP, di-isobutyl phthalate; DiDP, di-isodecyl phthalate; DiNP, di-isononyl phthalate; DMP, di-methyl phthalate; DnBP, di-n-butyl phthalate.

Discussion

In this systematic review of 5,378 samples analyzed from 67 studies, we found consistent migration of phthalates and bisphenols from food packaging into food products. However, only two studies examined PFAS migration from food packaging. Temperature (storage or heating), exposure length, and food composition increased migration rates. Fattier foods such as cake, oils, meat, and dairy are associated with the highest migration rates [9], 20], 22], 63], 66], 72], 85], 87]. Likewise, food acidity also increased migration rates [34], 53], 59], 60].

Based on a sample menu plan derived from the study results and a standard Western diet, we found concerning levels of DiDP. Based on the results of one study, consuming 50 g of olives could provide 35 mg of DiDP, due to migration from lid gaskets in glass jars [9]. Since this finding is based on a single study, it should be interpreted with caution. However, even when excluding this value, estimated daily intakes remain high at 1,144.2 µg. For a 20 kg child, this corresponds to an estimated daily intake of 57.2 μg/kg/day, which exceeds the tolerable daily intake of 50 μg/kg/day. Individuals consuming a diet with a higher percentage of ultra-processed foods will likely consume plasticizers in quantities exceeding those shown here.

Our findings are consistent with a prior review reporting that plasticizers, specifically DEHP, DnBP, DiBP, and BPA, were the most frequently detected food contact chemicals [12]. Furthermore, a systematic review investigating plasticizers from medical devices reported similar factors influencing plasticizer migration, such as storage duration, temperature, plasticizer concentration, and agitation of the plastic when in contact with internal solutions [88].

Several factors play a role in the migration process, and they largely depend on the plastic’s makeup, storage, and exposure. Reusable plastics can be affected by detergents, abrasive sponges used during washing, high temperatures, and sharp utensils, all contributing to the aging of the plastic’s polymers [39]. This aging process can speed up the release of plastic dimers, trimers, and oligomers [39]. Heating pre-packaged foods in their packaging or putting cooked food in plastic packaging can significantly increase the migration of plasticizers to the food [38], 41]. Fick’s Law governs the diffusion of substances across two compartments through concentration gradients, specifically regulating the diffusion of EDCs through packaging materials. Therefore, the extent of this diffusion depends on several factors such as the packaging material’s concentration, the food’s lipid content, the environment’s temperature, surface/volume ratio, and the exposure duration. Although materials such as polycarbonate display characteristics of thermo-resistance up to 125°, temperatures easily exceed that level in common food preparation methods such as microwaving, which induce higher levels of migration.

Paperboard packaging is a sustainable choice; however, the recycled paper used in food packaging often contains substances that can contribute to the presence of plasticizers in this type of packaging [78], 79]. While using an internal bag within recycled packaging can help reduce some of these substances from migrating, over time, plasticizers from inks can still seep through the inner bag and into the food [80]. Furthermore, printing inks containing phthalates can migrate indirectly, known as the ‘set off phenomenon,’ through inks and adhesives on the outer surface of the cardboard packaging [79]. Additionally, the physical properties of the food, such as stickiness or wetness, can lead to increased contact with the inner coating of the packaging, as seen with foods like Danish pastries [78]. Therefore, a better understanding of the diffusion potential of plasticizers can help reduce their migration into food, particularly by considering the specific characteristics of the food product and packaging involved.

This review has certain strengths that should be acknowledged. We conducted a comprehensive search capturing various food and packaging types. This allowed for extensive exploration of the food types that pose the most significant migration risk. We performed a grey literature search to capture studies outside the peer-reviewed literature. By excluding those studies whose primary focus was a new methodological process, all included studies used similar and valid methods of analysis of chemical assay, which removed concerns around the risk of bias and accuracy of results. Furthermore, we developed a sample menu based on the results of the included studies and estimated potential intake levels of chemicals. However, limitations remain. First, our review performed only a limited search of grey literature. However, few studies were identified outside of peer-reviewed literature, and it is unclear how likely it is that important literature was missed. Given the heterogeneity of identified studies, statistical synthesis of results was impossible. Last, the proposed sample menu was based on a standard Western diet and may not be generalizable to other dietary patterns such as a Mediterranean diet.

We identified few studies examining the migration of PFAS and bisphenol analogs. Therefore, further research is warranted. Since 94 % of studies reported migration, the safety of alternative plasticizers needs further research. For instance, a bio-based plasticizer, cardanol, was found to have similar physicochemical properties to DEHP [89]. Made as a by-product from cashew nut extraction, cardanol increases the crystallization kinetics of plastic; however, it appears to degrade significantly quicker than current plasticizers, making it potentially unsuitable for universal use.

Conclusions

This review found consistent migration of plasticizers from various packaging and into a range of food products. Several factors influenced migration rates, such as food composition, temperature, and storage time. While some categories, such as plastic wrap and cans, showed migration in all identified studies, every category of packaging type showed significant levels of migration, highlighting food as a major source of human exposure to plasticizers. Further research into low migration or safer alternative to current plasticizers, alongside regulatory efforts considering potential exposure via food contact materials may help reduce risks associated with endocrine-disrupting chemicals in food packaging.

Corresponding author: Dwan Vilcins, The Children’s Health and Environment Program, The University of Queensland, Child Health Research Centre, 62 Graham St, South Brisbane, 4101, QLD, Australia, E-mail:

Funding source: Australian Education International, Australian Government

Award Identifier / Grant number: Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship

  1. Research ethics: Not applicable.

  2. Informed consent: Not applicable.

  3. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  4. Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: None declared.

  5. Conflict of interest: The author states no conflict of interest.

  6. Research funding: Thomas Boissiere-O’Neill was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship.

  7. Data availability: Not applicable.

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Supplementary Material

This article contains supplementary material (https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2025-0027).

Received: 2025-02-16
Accepted: 2025-04-28
Published Online: 2025-07-17
Published in Print: 2025-09-25

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2025-0027
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
plasticizers; bisphenols; PFAS; migration; food packaging
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Reviews
  3. The association of particulate matter PM2.5 and nitrogen oxides from ambient air pollution and mental health of children and young adults- a systematic review
  4. Plant endophytic bacteria reduce phthalates accumulation in soil-crop-body system: a review
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Heruntergeladen am 27.10.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/reveh-2025-0027/html
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