E-waste in Vietnam: a narrative review of environmental contaminants and potential health risks

Kritika Poudel; Rahel Mesfin Ketema; Hien Thi Thu Ngo; Atsuko Ikeda; Machiko Minatoya

doi:10.1515/reveh-2022-0233

Article Open Access

E-waste in Vietnam: a narrative review of environmental contaminants and potential health risks

Kritika Poudel , Rahel Mesfin Ketema , Hien Thi Thu Ngo , Atsuko Ikeda and Machiko Minatoya

Published/Copyright: February 9, 2023

Published by

Become an author with De Gruyter Brill

Submit Manuscript Author Information Explore this Subject

From the journal Reviews on Environmental Health Volume 39 Issue 3

Abstract

Informal electronic waste (e-waste) dismantling activities contribute to releasing hazardous compounds in the environment and potential exposure to humans and their health. These hazardous compounds include persistent organic pollutants (POPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals. This review searched papers addressing hazardous compounds emitted from e-waste recycling activities and their health effects in Vietnam. Based on the keywords searched in three electronic databases (PubMed, Psych Info, and Google scholar), we found 21 relevant studies in Vietnam. The review identifies extensive e-waste dismantling activities in Vietnam in the northern region. To measure the environmental exposure to hazardous compounds, samples such as e-waste recycling workshop dust, soil, air, and sediments were assessed, while human exposure levels were measured using participants’ hair, serum, or breast milk samples. Studies that compared levels of exposure in e-waste recycling sites and reference sites indicated higher levels of PBDEs, PCBs, and heavy metals were observed in both environmental and human samples from participants in e-waste recycling sites. Among environmental samples, hazardous chemicals were the most detected in dust from e-waste recycling sites. Considering both environmental and human samples, the highest exposure difference observed with PBDE ranged from 2-48-fold higher in e-waste processing sites than in the reference sites. PCBs showed nearly 3-fold higher levels in e-waste processing sites than in reference sites. In the e-waste processing sites, age-specific higher PCB levels were observed in older recycler’s serum samples. Among the heavy metals, Pb was highly detected in drinking water, indoor soil and human blood samples. While high detection of Ni in cooked rice, Mn in soil and diet, Zn in dust and As in urine were apparent. Exposure assessment from human biomonitoring showed participants, including children and mothers from the e-waste processing areas, had higher carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks than the reference sites. This review paper highlights the importance of further comprehensive studies on risk assessments of environmentally hazardous substances and their association with health outcomes at e-waste processing sites.

Keywords: e-waste processing; hazardous substances; health risk assessment; informal and formal industries; Vietnam

Introduction

Electronic and electrical waste (e-waste) is defined as any “electrical or electronic equipment, which is waste, including all components, subassemblies, and consumables, which are part of the equipment at the time the equipment becomes waste” [1]. With the rapid economic growth and the advancement of information technology, the use of electronic and electrical appliances has accelerated, consequently increasing e-waste. Out of 20–50 million tons of e-waste generated yearly, 75–80% is estimated to ship to Asian and African countries for recycling and disposal [2]. Although several lower-and-middle-income countries (LMICs) have enacted regulations to stop the illegal import of e-waste into their countries, the rules are not being implemented effectively regulating e-waste policies [3].

E-waste toxicants such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) chemicals such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) are chemicals used in a multitude of manufacturing products. In addition, e-waste might contain different toxic heavy metals like lead, mercury, nickel, and cadmium. These POPs and heavy metals circulate in different forms during dismantling, heating, and open-burning and get released into the soil and air, posing a serious threat to the health of human beings and the environment [4].

E-waste is one of the fastest-growing concerns in industrialized countries, as well as in Vietnam. E-waste generated in Vietnam originates from the disposal of electronic and electrical equipment, industrial processes in electronic industries, illegal importation of discarded appliances from overseas and dismantling and recycling sites. Vietnam produced 257 kilotonnes (kt) of e-waste in 2019, or 2.7 kg per capita [5]. In Vietnam, the processing system of e-waste includes both formal and informal sectors, but informality is predominant [6, 7]. The formal sectors have the proper equipment for transportation, collection, classification, and safe technologies for treating hazardous waste. The creation and release of hazardous byproducts often occur in the so-called “informal” sector of e-waste recycling, where modern industrial processes are not used and where worker protection often is inadequate [2]. The lack of workplace health and safety regulations leads to an increased risk of injuries for workers in informal e-waste dismantling and recycling [3]. Moreover, in informal sectors, residents living near the e-waste recycling sites are at risk of exposure to toxic chemicals by inhaling toxic fumes and particulate matter or through skin contact with corrosive agents and chemicals, or by ingesting contaminated food and water, as there is no clear separation of the residential areas from recycling workshops [3]. In addition, most scrapyard and recycling activities are conducted by women, and their children play near these workshops. Thus, women and children are at a greater risk of e-waste-related toxic chemical exposure, posing certain vulnerabilities to health effects [2, 3].

Many cross-sectional studies have investigated the current environmental pollution, exposure assessment or health risk assessment of contaminants such as POPs, including brominated and chlorinated flame retardants, phosphorus-containing flame retardants, chlorinated and brominated dioxins and dioxin-like compounds and heavy metals derived from e-waste processing area in Vietnam [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13]. However, to the best of our knowledge, no study has been conducted to review the environmental pollution situation and potential health risks to humans from e-waste processing in Vietnam. Therefore, this review paper aims to summarize the current exposure levels of different hazardous compounds or chemicals released from informal e-waste processing activities and their adverse effects on human health, discuss the research gap, and propose solutions to future challenges in Vietnam.

Methods and materials

This review summarizes different POPs such as PBDEs, PCBs, PCDD/F, PBDD/F, PAHs, bromophenols (BPhs) and heavy metal Pb, Cd, Cr, As, Mn, Sb, Zn, Ni and Hg levels found in the environment and human bio samples and their possible effect on health from published reports. A systematic search was conducted using PubMed, Psych Info, and Google Scholar databases. No date limit was imposed on the search, and the language was limited to English. The search was performed using the following terms in different databases: (“e-waste”, “e-waste and health”, “electronic waste”, “health”, and “Vietnam”. First, two authors (KP and RMK) independently selected the papers and reviewed the document selections for inconsistencies. Then, the authors paired to screen the full-text reports and decide whether they met the inclusion criteria. Any concerns regarding the paper’s eligibility were resolved through a meeting with all co-authors. In this review, 7,000 English literature with full articles were collected. We excluded 225 duplicates, 958 pieces of literature with no Vietnam data, 1,126 reviews, and 4,670 non-relevant publications such as non-health studies and studies on e-waste generation and disposal. As a result, we included 21 studies in this review (Figure 1).

Figure 1:

Flowchart of the study.

Results and discussions

Overall, most informal e-waste recycling areas in Vietnam were located in the northern region. The informal e-waste recycling sites included Trieu Khuc village in Hanoi province, Dong Mai village and Bui Dau village in Hung Yen province, as well as Thuyen village and Bao Dai commune in Bac Giang province (Figure 2). Exposure to e-waste was associated with different hazardous organic compounds such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) [11, 12, 14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) [11, 19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/F) [23], polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PBDD/F) [23], polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) [15, 25], and bromophenols (BPhs) [20]. Furthermore, exposure to e-waste was also associated with different heavy metals such as Pb [13, 21, 22, 26, 27], Cd [26, 28], Cr [13], As [13], Mn [26], Sb [26], Zn [26], Ni [21, 22] and Hg [21, 22].

Figure 2:

Different informal e-waste processing sites included in the study.

The current exposure levels of different hazardous compounds or chemicals (POPs and heavy metals) released from informal e-waste processing activities

Levels of hazardous organic compounds in the environment and humans found in e-waste processing areas in Vietnam have been presented in Table 1. All studies were concentrated in the northern region of Vietnam, indicating e-waste processing-related chemicals exposure and health vulnerability. Among the reviewed e-waste studies in Vietnam, the most investigated hazardous chemicals were POPs, mainly polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE). Pb was the most investigated heavy metal in these studies. Most studies used environmental samples such as indoor/road dust, soil, sediment, fish, air or plastic parts found in exposure or reference sites. Plastic parts and workplace dust seem to show the highest level of the studied hazardous substances. Considering human samples, the major hazardous substance measurements used were serum samples from participants. Few studies used breast milk, and one used hair to measure hazardous substances. In most of these studies, exposure site participants showed higher exposure levels than those from reference sites, except for PCBs. PCBs exposure levels were similar among exposure site and reference site participants.

Table 1:

Hazardous substances exposure level range stratified by chemicals in Vietnam.

Hazard substance	Study type	Measurement samples	Concentration level		Reference
Hazard substance	Study type	Measurement samples	Exposure site	Reference site	Reference
PBDE	Environmental	Plastic parts (e.g. laptop cooling fans)	1,730–97,300 ng/g		[14]
		Indoor dust (surface of furniture in house)	250–8,650 ng/g
		Sediment (drainage canals near recycling workshop)	1.7–1,710 ng/g dry weight
		Fish (from ponds near recycling areas)	21.6–1,380 ng/g lipid weight
		Road dust from urban area	16–56 ng/g	0.9–3.6 ng/g	[15]
		Road dust from industrial zone	3.4–11 ng/g	0.9–3.6 ng/g	[15]
		ELVs processing households floor dust	260–670 ng/g		[16]
		ELVs workshop dust	140–11,000 ng/g		[16]
		Workplace dust (e-waste workshop)	13–48,000 ng/g		[17]
		Floor dust (next to e-waste workshop workplace)	12–130,000 ng/g
		Settled dust (surface of horizontal beams and windows in workshop)	5.5–41,000 ng/g
		Indoor dust (surface of furniture in houses)	130-12,000 ng/g	38–610 ng/g,	[12]
		Air (households with and without backyard recycling activity)	11–720 pg/m³	4.6–58 pg/m³	[12]
		Workplace dust (e-waste workshop)	Average mass concentration’s 130,000 ng/g		[29]
		Floor dust (next to e-waste workshop workplace)	140,000 ng/g
		Settled dust (surface of horizontal beams and windows in workshop)	74,000 ng/g
		Soil (around e-waste recycling workshop)	68–9,200 ng/g dry weight		[18]
		Soil (around open burning places)	1.6–63 ng/g dry weight
		Soil (from footpaths and paddy fields)	1.0–8.2 ng/g dry weight
		Sediment (from river stream near EWR sites)	0.4–350 ng/g dry weight
	Human	Hair from recyclers and non-recyclers	Median: 276 ng/g	Median: 22 ng/g	[19]
		Breast milk from recycling site and reference site	0.2–250 ng/g lipid	0.2–0.8 ng/g lipid	[11]
		Serum (recycling workers and non-recyclers)	0.0–2.3 ng/g wet weight	0.1–0.4 ng/g wet weight	[20]
		Serum (recycling workers and non-recyclers)	Median: 82.4 ng/g lipid	Median: 1.7 ng/g lipid	[21, 22]
PCBs	Environmental	ELVs processing households floor dust	19–220 ng/g		[16]
		ELVs workshop dust	80–2,200 ng/g		[16]
		Indoor dust (surface of furniture in houses)	4.8–320 ng/g	3.6–85 ng/g	[12]
		Air (households with and without backyard recycling activity)	33–1,800 pg/m³	57–550 pg/m³	[12]
		Settled dust from furnitures surface in houses	0.5–7.9 ng/g	0.0–1.2 ng/g	[23]
	Human	Hair from recyclers and non-recyclers	Median: 8.3 ng/g	Median: 3.3 ng/g	[19]
		Breast milk from recyclers and non-recyclers	Median: 50 ng/g	Median: 46 ng/g	[24]
		Breast milk from recycling site and reference site	8.4–73 ng/g lipid	20–100 ng/g lipid	[11]
		Serum (recycling workers and non-recyclers)	0.15–6.4 ng/g	0.05–2.5 ng/g	[20]
		Serum (recycling workers and non-recyclers)	Median:	Median:	[21, 22]
			18–<38 year old:3.5 ng/g lipid	18–<38 year old:8.8 ng/g lipid
			≥38–52 year old: 8.7 ng/g lipid	≥38–52 year old: 8.3 ng/g lipid
Perchlorate	Human	Serum from donors living in recycling site	<0.05–1.2 ng/mL	<0.05–0.6 ng/mL	[30]
Thiocyanate		Serum from donors living in recycling site	466–12,600 ng/mL	317–20,100 ng/mL	[30]
Iodide		Serum from donors living in recycling site	1.2–12.2 ng/mL	1.3–13.1 ng/mL	[30]
PCDD/F	Environmental	Settled dust from furnitures surface in houses	1.1–4.5 ng/g	0.5–0.6 ng/g	[23]
PBDD/F		Settled dust from furnitures surface in houses	7.7–63 ng/g	1.5–2.3 ng/g	[31]
PAHs	Environmental	Surface soil from e-waste recycling area	76–6,700 ng/g		[25]
PAHs	Environmental	River sediment from e-waste recycling area	19–2,500 ng/g		[25]
BPhs	Human	Serum (recycling workers and non-recyclers)	0.1–1.4 ng/g	0.1–0.4 ng/g	[20]

PBDEs, polybrominated diphenyl ethers; PCBs, polychlorinated biphenyls; BPhs, bromophenols; ELVs, end-of-life vehicles; EWR, e-waste recycling.

The current exposure levels of POPs in the environment and human from informal e-waste processing areas in Vietnam

The current exposure levels of POPs in the environment from informal e-waste processing areas in Vietnam

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) in the environment

Several consumer and industrial electronic products, like computers, cell phones, TVs etc., use brominated flame retardants (BFRs) to upsurge their thermal resisting properties [32]. Due to the informal recycling process, these electronic products’ e-waste recyclers are exposed to BFRs. As one of the ubiquitously used BFRs, PBDEs have been measured in several environmental samples, such as indoor/workshop/road dust, soil, sediment, air, plastic parts, and fish in Vietnam. PBDE was also observed in indoor dust collected from the furniture surface in e-waste recycling sites that varied between 130 and 12,000 ng/g [14, 23]. Tue et al. reported the level of PBDE in indoor dust from the furniture’s surface in the e-waste processing sites 3-19-fold higher compared to that in a reference site, which shows the elevated contribution of e-waste for PBDE exposure [23]. Floor dust in the e-waste recycling site in Thuyen seems to have a narrow range of PBDE (260–670 ng/g) compared to floor dust, a wide range (12–130,000 ng/g) in Bac Giang province [16, 23]. Studies that used e-waste site dust samples, mainly workshop/workplace dust, reported PBDE exposure levels varying from 140–11,000 ng/g in Thuyen, Bac Giang province [16] and ranging between 13 and 48,000 ng/g in Bui Dau, Hung Yen Province [17]. In the e-waste recycling sites in Bui Dau, Hung Yen province, PBDE concentrations in settled dust on the surface of the workshop windows (5.2–41,000 ng/g) and floor dust next to the workshop was (12–130,000 ng/g) [17]. Road dust samples in Bui Dau village, Hung Yen province, from industrial and urban areas, showed increased PBDE levels ranging from 3.4–16 ng/g compared to the 0.9–3.6 ng/g range in rural road dust samples [14]. This indicates PBDE pollutants could be related to industrial contamination of hazardous substances. The road dust samples’ PBDE levels from Hanoi urban area and industrial area (16–56 ng/g) were higher than concentrations in rural areas (0.9–3.6 ng/g) [15]. This may indicate the variation of PBDE pollution in different dust samples in e-waste recycling sites in Vietnam. In Bui Dau village of Hung Yen province, soil samples around e-waste recycling sites showed higher PBDE levels ranging from 68–9,200 ng/g dry weight (dw) than soils collected from open burning sites and footpaths and paddy fields ranging from 1.0 to 63 ng/g dw [18]. While the Bui Dau, Hung Yen province’s BFRs level in soils samples were lower, which ranges in the soil around the open burning places (1.6–63 ng/g dw), in the soil around the recycling workshop (68–9,200 ng/g dw), and in soil from footpath and paddy field (ND–8.2 ng/g dw) in river sediment near e-waste recycling site (0.4–350 ng/g dw) [18]. The PBDE level in Bui Dau from sediment samples from drainage canals near e-waste recycling sites varies between 0.4 and 1,710 ng/g dry and wet [14, 18]. E-waste recycling sites indoor air PBDE ranged from 11–720 pg/m³, while the reference site ranged from 4.6–58 pg/m³ [23]. In samples of plastic product parts collected from e-waste recycling sites in Bui Dau, the concentration of PBDE ranged from 1,730 to 97,300 ng/g [14]. PBDEs can be absorbed and accumulated in fish [33]. This was evident as fish samples from ponds near the e-waste site in Bui Dau showed PBDE ranging from 21.6–1,380 ng/g lipid weight [14]. Among the above-mentioned studies, recycling workshop dust seems a major source of PBDE exposure to e-waste recyclers.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in the environment

Takahashi et al. reported the PCB levels in household floor dust (19–220 ng/g) and workshop dust (980–2,200 ng/g) in end-of-life vehicle processing households in Thuyen village [16]. The agricultural community dominated the Thuyen village and started end-of-life-vehicle processing in mid-2000 [16]. This may indicate e-waste processing may increase their exposure to hazardous substances due to their activities. In Hai Phong city and Hung Yen province, the PCBs level in the indoor surface furniture dust of e-waste recycling sites ranged from 4.8 to 320 ng/g as compared to that in the reference site range (3.6–85 ng/g); also, the PCBs in air samples from houses with backyard recycling were 33–1,800 pg/m³ and in reference sites 57–550 pg/m³ [23]. Another study in Hai Phong city that used settled dust from the furniture surface reported PCBs in recyclers site 0.5–7.9 ng/g, while a much lower level was observed in the reference site that was between 0.5 and 1.2 ng/g [11].

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/furans (PCDD/Fs) and polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxin/furans (PBDD/Fs) in the environment

The improper thermal e-waste handling process is a source of several contaminating dioxin-like compounds such as PCDD/Fs and PBDD/Fs [34]. In the e-waste, a site settled dust samples, the level of PBDD/Fs (7.7–63 ng/g) was more than 7-fold higher than PCDD/Fs (1.1–4.5 ng/g), and similarly, an about the 3-fold increase of PBDD/Fs (1.5–2.36 ng/g) was observed than PCDD/Fs (0.5–0.6 ng/g) in reference site dust samples [11]. This result shows in both the e-waste site and reference site, PBDD/Fs levels are higher than PCDD/Fs levels indicating ubiquitous exposure to brominated compounds in Vietnam.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the environment

Informal recycling or e-waste dismantling activities without protective equipment may cause PAH exposure. The PAHs exposure was reported in Vietnam e-waste recycling areas in surface soil ranging from 76–6,700 ng/g and in river sediment ranging from 19–250 ng/g [25].

The current exposure levels of POPs in humans from informal e-waste processing areas in Vietnam

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) in the humans

Muto et al. reported that the median PBDE in battery recyclers’ hair samples in Dong Mai was 276 ng/g, while non-recyclers’ hair median level was 22 ng/g in Hanoi [19]. Breast milk is an important matrix for hazardous substance internal exposure and an indicator of infants’ exposure due to its direct transfer [35]. The PBDE has been detected in e-waste recyclers’ breast milk ranging from 0.2–250 ng/g lipid and in non-recyclers ranging from 0.2–0.8 ng/g lipid [11]. This suggests that exposure to PBDE from e-waste to vulnerable feeding mothers and potential health hazards and exposure route to the newborn through breast milk. Serum samples in non-smoking adult women from e-waste recyclers in Bao Dai showed a much higher PBDE median of 82.4 ng/g lipid [21, 22] than e-waste recyclers’ serum median of 0.3 ng/g lipid in Bui Dai [20].

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in the humans

Human hair has been used to biomonitor hazardous substances as an exposure indicator, mainly in industrial and e-waste processing studies. The median PCB concentration in hair collected from e-waste recyclers, 8.3 ng/g, was more than twice that of non-recyclers hair, 3.3 ng/g [19]. A study used breast milk for biomonitoring PCBs and reported PCBs in e-waste and battery recyclers’ samples from Hai Phong and Hung Yen provinces with a median level of 50 ng/g and 46 ng/g in non-recyclers in Hanoi [24]. A similar study that used breast milk samples in exposure sites from Dong Mai, Trang Minh, and Hai Phong reported PCBs level ranging from 8.4–73 ng/g, and in reference sites from Hanoi, ranging between 20 and 100 ng/g [11]. As PCBs are persistent organic compounds and bioaccumulate in human blood [36], human blood serum has been an important matrix used to measure internal PCBs exposure generated from the e-waste processing environment. The e-waste processing high risk of PCB exposure was evident as more than 2.5 times higher level was observed in serum samples from the recycling workers (0.15–6.4 ng/g) than reference site workers (0.05–2.5 ng/g) [20]. Another study that used serum to measure PCBs reported e-waste recyclers (between 38 and 52 years old age) seem to have a higher PCBs median of 8.7 ng/g lipid than e-waste recyclers (between 18 and 38-year-old age) with a median of 3.5 ng/g lipid [21, 22]. While the same study reported no apparent age-specific differences in PCB levels in non-recyclers serum with 8.8 ng/g lipid in (18–38-year-old) and 8.3 ng/g lipid in (≥38–52-year-old) [21, 22]. This result may indicate PCB accumulation in participants living in e-waste recycling sites due to PCB’s persistent properties.

Brominated phenols (BPhs) in humans

Due to rapid global electronics inventions and consumption, brominated phenols (BPhs) are compounds widely used as flame retardants to increase the fire resistance of products. They have been detected in the environment [37]. At the end-life of electronic products, improper e-waste treatment could result in exposure to BPhs. BPhs concentration in the serum samples from e-waste recycling participants (0.1–1.4 ng/g wet weight) was higher than in reference area Duong Quang participants (0.1–0.4 ng/g wet weight) [20].

The current exposure levels of heavy metals in the environment and human from informal e-waste processing areas in Vietnam

The heavy metals level in the environment and humans in Vietnam has been summarized in Table 2. In this review, heavy metals; include lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), antimony (Sb), and zinc (Zn) exposure levels are depicted in environmental or humans’ samples.

Table 2:

Heavy metals exposure levels range in Vietnam (exposure site/reference site).

Study type	Measurement sample	Heavy metals										Ref
Study type	Measurement sample	Pb	Cd	Cr	Ni	As	Hg	Cu	Mn	Sb	Zn	Ref
Environmental	Drinking water (µg/L) mean	2.0/1.5	<LOD/<LOD	0.9/0.8	2.5/4.1	0.2/0.3						[13, 28]
	Cooked rice (mg/kg) mean	0.3/0.6	0.2/0.1	0.6/0.7	9.5/2.2	0.1/0.1
	Indoor soil (mg/kg) mean	460.4/33.5	8.2/0.4	57.5/35.7	93.6/31.2	8.7/7.9
	Soil (mg/kg)	69.9–1,980	<0.03–3.5					61.9–4,890	328–837	2.4–157	109–1,720	[26]
	Dust (mg/kg)	252–969	<0.05–4.2						462–575	15.1–106	539–1,540
	Diet (mg/kg)	0.008–0.062	0.002–0.022						3.6–11.7	0.000–0.002	9.3–26.6
	Air (ng/m³)	34–48	1.3–2.1						24.37	6.9–11	97–140
Human	Blood (µg/L)	1.9–13.4/2.1–14.1^a	0.2–2.3/0.3–2.3	0.9–3.2/0.5–7.1	0.6–21.7/8.8–18.6	4.3–22.3/0.1–17.4						[27]
	Blood (µg/L) median	4.8/2.9^a	0.6/0.6				2.5/3.4					[21, 22]
	Urine (µg/g cr) median	3.2/2.3	0.9/0.8			42.3/46.9	0.5/0.3					[21, 22]

^aPb (µg/dL). Pb, plumbum; Cd, cadmium; Cr, chromium; Ni, nickel; As, arsenic; Hg, mercury; Cu, copper; Mn, manganese; Sb, antimony; Zn, zinc.

Heavy metals in the environment

A study reported the mean level of Pb, Cr, and Ni was higher in e-waste processing sites for drinking water (2.0, 0.9, 2.5 μg/L), indoor soil (460.4, 57.5, 93.6 mg/kg) compared to reference site for drinking water (1.5, 0.8, 4.1 μg/L) and indoor soil (33.3, 35.7, 31.2 mg/kg) respectively [28]. While the reverse was true for the Pb level in cooked rice as in the exposure site, 0.3 mg/kg was lower than the reference site, 0.6 mg/kg. The Pb exposure in the reference site could be attributed to contamination from fertilizers or cooking water [38]. Another study of Pb exposure in households from an e-waste processing area of Hung Yen province reported the highest Pb level range in floor dust samples (252–969 mg/kg), followed by garden soil samples range (69–1,980 mg/kg) [26]. The concentration of Pb ranged from 34–48 ng/m³ in air samples and from 0.008–0.062 mg/kg in the study participants’ diets, respectively [26]. In garden soil samples from the e-waste processing area of Hung Yen province, a high level of Mn (328–837 mg/kg) was detected, while the lowest heavy metal was Cd, with a concentration of <0.03–3.5 mg/kg [26]. While Zn was the highly detected heavy metal in floor dust (539–1,540 mg/kg), followed by Mn (462–575 mg/kg), with the lowest heavy metal detection of Cd (<0.05–4.2 mg/kg). The participants’ diet also showed a high Zn level (9.3–26.6 mg/kg) with the lowest detection of Sb (0.000–0.002 mg/kg). In air samples highest detected heavy metal was Zn (97–140 ng/m³). The report from Oguri et al. indicated Zn, Mn, and Pb were highly detected heavy metals in the garden soil, floor dust diet, and air samples [26].

Heavy metals in humans

Humans are exposed to heavy metals through inhalation, ingestion or dermal contacts in which e-waste recycling processes such as open burning would facilitate higher exposure to humans [39]. The blood level concentration range of Ni and As in e-waste recycling sites participants in Bui village (0.6–21.2 μg/L and 4.3–22.2 μg/L) was significantly higher than reference site participants in Nhuan Trach village (8.8–18.6 μg/L and 0.1–17.4 μg/L) respectively [27]. While no significant difference in heavy metals (Pb, Cd, and Cr) was observed in blood samples of the exposed and reference sites [27]. Two studies reported blood and urine levels of heavy metals (Pb, Cd, As, and Hg) in the Bao Dai e-waste recycling village and Cam reference village. The median Pb level in blood samples and urine samples from e-waste recyclers (4.82 μg/dL and 3.2 μg/g creatinine (Cr)) was higher than non-recyclers (2.93 μg/dL and 2.3 μg/g Cr), respectively [21, 22]. While Cd in blood and urine samples were similar among recyclers and non-recyclers. On the contrary, the median level of methyl mercury and total Hg in blood were higher in non-recyclers (4.6 and 3.4 μg/L) than in recyclers (2.7 and 2.5 μg/L), respectively. The study suggested high fish consumption could be attributed to the higher mercury level in non-recyclers than in recyclers [21, 22]. Similar As median levels in urine samples were observed in recyclers (42.3 μg/g Cr) and non-recyclers (46.9 μg/g Cr). The ubiquitous use of well-water in Vietnam, which has As contamination [40] in rural areas, could be the source of As to the rural non-recycling participants.

The adverse effects of different hazardous compounds or chemicals on human health

E-waste exposure to humans occurs through different pathways. Workers and inhabitants living near Vietnamese e-waste recycling sites can be exposed through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption when they come into contact with contaminated soil, dust, air, water or food sources. Additionally, types of exposure sources and duration of exposure or additive effects of multiple exposures are all factors that can influence health outcomes [41].

The adverse effects of different POPs on human health

Different studies from Vietnam have assessed the adverse effects of different POPs on human health through exposure assessment [12, 14], [15], [16], [17], [18, 23, 25, 29, 31] and human biomonitoring [10, 11, 19, 20, 24].

Studies have indicated that the general Vietnamese population is exposed to higher levels of PCBs than emerging POPs such as PBDEs [12, 23]. Daily intake doses of PBDEs via road dust ingestion were estimated at 2.3 × 10–5 to 0.11 ng kg⁻¹ d⁻¹ for residents [15]. A study conducted in the informal e-waste recycling area in Northern Vietnam showed that carcinogenicity and mutagenicity of PAHs in soils were significantly higher than in the field soil ranging lifetime cancer risk of PAH-contaminated soils from 5.5 × 10⁻⁹ to 4.6 × 10⁻⁶ [25]. Table 3 presents the environmental exposure assessment and results of hazards.

Table 3:

Table showing environmental exposure assessment and results of hazards.

Hazardous substance	Study population	Exposure assessment	Results of hazards/DI	Reference
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)	Dust sample (n=31) from Hanoi (n=16)	Non-cancer hazard index (HI)	2.3 × 10⁻⁵ to 0.11 ng kg-bw⁻¹ d⁻¹ (PBDEs)	[15]
	Thai Nguyen (n=10)
	Bac Giang (n=5)
	Dust sample (n=3) from workplace (n=1), floor (n=1), and settled dust (n=1)	Daily intake, hazard quotient	Daily intake: 0.056–7.3 μg/kg BW/day	[17]
		Daily intake, hazard quotient	HQ: <1	[17]
	Household dust (n=33) from Hanoi, Trang Minh, Bui Dau	Dust ingestion	HN: 50 ng d⁻¹ (PCBs), 5.9 ng d⁻¹ (PBDEs)	[12]
			TM: 56 ng d⁻¹ (PCBs), 22 ng d⁻¹ (PBDEs)
			BD: 59 ng d⁻¹ (PCBs), 65 ng d⁻¹ (PBDEs)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)	Surface soil (n=32) and river sediments (n=8) from Bui Dau	Toxicity, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity	TEQ: 1.3–93 ng TCDD-eq g⁻¹	[25]
			MEQ: 64–6,800 ng BaP-eq g⁻¹
			CEQ: 24–4,100 ng BaP-eq g⁻¹
Heavy metals	Household dust, air (n=5)	Hazard quotient, dust ingestion rate	HQ: 0.7 (cadmium), 0.01 (copper), 0.2 (manganese), 0.04 (antimony), 0.2 (zinc)	[26]
Heavy metals	Household dust, air (n=5)	Hazard quotient, dust ingestion rate	Intake (µg/day): 3.9 (Cd), 330 (Cu), 1,800 (Mn), 56 (Pb), 0.78 (Sb), 3,800 (Zn)	[26]
Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)	Dust sample (n=10) from workshop (n=6), living room (n=4)	Dioxin like toxic equivalent	14-140 pg-TEQ g⁻¹	[16]
Flame retardants (FRs)	Indoor dust in E-waste dismantling workshops (n=3) from Bui Dau	Hazard quotient	HQ: <1	[29]
1,2,3,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDDs)	Surface soil from E-waste site (n=10) and control site (n=2)	Dioxin like toxic equivalent	E-waste site 1: 370–380, median 490 pg CALUX-TEQg⁻¹	[23]
			E-waste site 2: 370–1,000, median 520 pg CALUX-TEQg⁻¹
			Urban control: 49–400, median 140 pg CALUX-TEQg⁻¹

A study to estimate PCB and toxic equivalency (TEQ) (14–140 pg-TEQ g⁻¹) intake doses from dust ingestion approached or exceeded the reference doses for children living at some end-of-life vehicle recycling sites indicating potential health risks [16]. However, other studies that measured hazard indices of FRs using bio accessibilities of less than 1 suggested that non-cancer risk to human health via dust ingestion was low [17, 29].

Tue et al. studied the dioxin-related compounds in women’s breast milk from Vietnamese e-waste recycling sites. The chemical analysis showed that the WHO-TEQ levels of PCDD/Fs, DL-PCBs and PBDD/Fs in e-waste recycling sites samples were not significantly higher than in those from the reference site (0.22–7.4 vs. 1.1–3.0 pg/g lipid) and within the Vietnamese background range, but women involved in recycling accumulated higher concentrations of PCDFs (13–15 vs. 2.3–8.8 pg/g lipid) and PBDFs (1.1–1.5 vs. o1.1 pg/g lipid) [10, 31]. Another study from the same authors investigating human exposure to dioxin-related compounds showed that estimates of TEQ intake from dust ingestion suggested that children in the e-waste recycling sites might have been adversely affected by DRCs from dust [11]. Furthermore, a study that measured the human milk of mothers from EWRs showed that the highest HQs for PBDEs, with several values close to or over 1, belonged to recycler mothers indicating potential health risk for their children [24]. Another study by Eguchi et al. showed positive associations of PCBs and OH-PCB concentrations with total thyroxine, free thyroxine, total triiodothyronine, and free triiodothyronine and a negative association with thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations [20].

Studies have also assessed the exposure assessment of chemicals/compounds using human biomarkers and environmental samples (also presented in Table 4) [14, 18]. A study showed that the PBDE levels in indoor dust samples collected from e-waste recycling sites ranged from 250 to 8,740 ng/g, which were markedly higher than those in industrial areas and household offices [14]. A study conducted in Northern Vietnam showed that the estimated values for dermal exposure to flame retardants were at the same levels for children and adults. Still, the values via soil ingestion were approximately ten times higher for children than adults [18].

Table 4:

Table showing environment and human exposure assessment and results of hazards.

Hazardous substance	Study population	Exposure assessment	Results of hazards/DI	Reference
PBDE	Indoor dust from Bui Dau (n=11) Trieu Khuc (n=4) Hanoi (n=9)	Dust ingestion	Dietary exposure: 14.6 (1.02–64.9) ng/day/kg body wt Exposure via dust ingestion: 1.31 (0.10–3.46) (medium) ng/day/kg body wt 3.28 (0.25–8.66) (high)ng/day/kg body wt	[14]
1,2-Bis-(2, 4, 6- tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE)	Surface soil collected from E-waste recycling workshop (n=10) Open burning sites of wires and cables (n=3) Surrounding paddy field and footpath (n=19)	Daily intake	DI in E-waste recycling workshop Soil ingestion (ng kg⁻¹-bw day⁻¹): Child: 1.3 × 10⁻¹(DBDPE)/4.0 × 10⁻² (BTBPE)/2.3 × 10⁻² (DPs) Adult: 1.3 × 10⁻² (DBDPE)/4.1 × 10⁻³ (BTBPE)/2.3 × 10⁻³ (DPs) Dermal exposure (ng kg⁻¹- bw day⁻¹): Child: 2.1 × 10⁻² (DBDPE)/6.3 × 10⁻³ (BTBPE)/3.6 × 10⁻³ (DPs) Adult: 2.8 × 10⁻² (DBDPE)/8.5 × 10⁻³ (BTBPE)/4.9 × 10⁻³ (DPs) DI in opening burning spaces Soil ingestion (ng kg⁻¹- bw day⁻¹): Child: 3.3 × 10⁻³ (DBDPE)/1.7 × 10⁻⁴ (BTBPE)/8.6 × 10⁻³ (DPs) Adult: 3.4 × 10⁻⁴ (DBDPE)/1.7 × 10⁻⁵ (BTBPE)/8.9 × 10⁻⁴ (DPs) Dermal exposure (ng kg⁻¹- bw day⁻¹): Child: 5.3 × 10⁻⁴ (DBDPE)/2.6 × 10⁻⁵ (BTBPE)/1.4 × 10⁻³ (DPs) Adult: 7.2 × 10⁻⁴ (DBDPE)/3.6 × 10⁻⁵ (BTBPE)/1.9 × 10⁻³ (DPs)	[18]
Heavy metals	Bui village (n=40) Nhuan Trach (reference) (n=40)	Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk	Bui village (e-waste processing site) Non-carcinogenic risk: HQ_Pb: 1.44E-01 HQ_Cd: 2.29E-01 HQ_Cr: 1.87E-01 HQ_Ni: 4.81E-01 HQ_As: 4.44E-01 Carcinogenic risk: ILCR_Pb: 4.28E-06 ILCR_Cd: 1.39E-03 ILCR_Cr: 2.81E-04 ILCR_Ni: 8.76E-03 ILCR_As: 2.00E-04	[13]

HQ, hazard quotient; ILCR, incremental lifetime cancer risk.

The adverse effects of different heavy metals on human health

Different studies from Vietnam have assessed the adverse effects of different heavy metals on human health through exposure assessment [13, 26, 28] and human biomonitoring [27, 30], or both [21, 22].

A study showed that children from the exposed village appeared to have a higher carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk from their exposure to the heavy metals released from an informal e-waste processing facility in Vietnam [13, 28]. The health risks due to exposure to Cd, Cu, Mn, Sb, and Zn, appear to be negligible in those areas where non-intensive e-waste processing activities sites except for Pb showed higher exposure levels [26]. However, Ngo et al. showed that HQi of each heavy metal from pathways (ingestion of drinking water, cooked rice, and soil) was <1, meaning these individual heavy metals were unlikely to cause an adverse non-carcinogenic risk to a child over a lifetime [13]. More detailed information on human exposure assessment and hazard results is presented in Table 5.

Table 5:

Table showing human exposure assessment and results of hazards.

Hazardous substance	Study population	Exposure assessment	Result of hazards/DI	Reference
Heavy metal	Children (8–14 y/o) Bui (n=40) Nhuan Trach (n=40)	Blood metal level	Bui (E-waste site): 15.11 ± 2.71 (mean ± SD) Nhuan Trach (reference site): 13.25 ± 2.59	[27]
	Children (8–14 y/o) Bui village (n=40) Nhuan Trach (n=40)	Carcinogenic risk	HQ _Pb1.44E−01 ± 9.93E−02 (E-waste) 1.58E−01 ± 3.57E−01 (reference) HQ_Cd 2.29E−01 ± 3.09E−01(E-waste) 6.57E−02 ± 5.65E−02 (reference) HQ_Cr 1.87E−01 ± 1.57E−01 (E-waste) 1.93E−01 ± 1.03E−01 (reference) HQ_Ni 4.81E−01 ± 7.86E−01(E-waste) 7.58E−02 ± 9.30E−02 (reference) HQ_As 4.44E−01 ± 2.16E−01 (E-waste) 4.21E−01 ± 2.12E−01 (reference) HI 1.49E+00 ± 1.19E+00 (E-waste) 9.13E−01 ± 5.38E−01 (reference) ILCR_Pb 4.28E−06 ± 2.95E−06 (E-waste) 4.69E−06 ± 1.06E−05 (reference) ILCL_Cd 1.39E−03 ± 1.88E−03 (E-waste) 4.01E−04 ± 3.45E−04 (reference) ILCR_Cr 2.81E−04 ± 2.35E−04 (E-waste) 2.89E−04 ± 1.54E−04 (reference) ILCR_Ni 8.76E−03 ± 1.43E−02 (E-waste) 1.38E−03 ± 1.69E−03 (reference) ILCR_As 2.00E−04 ± 9.74E−05 (E-waste) 1.89E−04 ± 9.55E−05 (reference) ILCR_sum 1.06E−02 ± 1.46E−02 (E-waste) 2.26E−03 ± 1.76E−03 (reference)	[28]
PCB, PBDE and HBCD	Breastfeeding mothers from Hanoii (n=1) Hai Phong (n=1) Hung Yen (n=2)	Hazard quotient	HQ<1 (both e-waste and reference site)	[24]
	Hanoi (n=9) Dong Mai (n=4) Trang Minh (n=11)	Hazard quotient	PCB: HQ<1 PBDE: HQ>1	[11]
PCDD/F, PBDD/F	Thach Hoa (n=6) Trang Minh (n=9) Bui Dau (n=10)	Dioxin like toxic equivalent	WHO-TEQ (no PBDFs): 1.7 (TH), 1.8 (TM), 1.4 (BD); same for WHO-TEQ (with PBDFs) CALUX-TEQ: 1.7 (TH), 3.2 (TM), 5.3 (BD)	[10]
PBDE, PCB, metals	Adult female recycler from Bao Dai (n=40) Cam (n=20)	Blood metal level	Median blood mercury level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 2.49 (2.08–2.90) µg/L Cam (reference): 3.46 (2.50–3.88) µg/L Median blood lead level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 48.2 (45.2–59.6) µg/L Cam (reference): 29.3 (26.2–38.8) µg/L Median blood cadmium level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 0.59 (0.53–0.68) µg/L Cam (reference): 0.59 (0.41–0.78) µg/L Median blood methyl mercury level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 2.49 (2.08–2.90) µg/L Cam (reference): 3.46 (2.50–3.88) µg/L	[21]
PBDE, metal	Adult female recycler from Bao Dai (n=40) Cam (n=20)	Blood and urine metal level	Whole blood cadmium level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 0.59 (0.53–0.68) µg/L Cam (reference): 0.59 (0.41–0.78) µg/L Whole blood lead level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 48.2 (45.2–59.6) µg/L Cam (reference): 29.3 (26.2–38.8) µg/L Whole blood methyl mercury level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 2.76 (2.30–3.22) µg/L Cam (reference): 4.16 (2.93–5.08) µg/L Whole blood mercury level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 2.49 (2.08–2.90) µg/L Cam (reference): 3.46 (2.50–3.88) µg/L Urine total arsenic level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 42.35 (37.54–49.55) µg/g Cre Cam (reference): 46.94 (38.56–65.70) µg/g Cre Urine arsenobetaine level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 6.96 (5.37–10.29) µg/g Cre Cam (reference): 7.62 (2.32–24.90) µg/g Cre Urine arsenous acid level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 1.79 (1.52–2.64) µg/g Cre Cam (reference): 1.91 (1.63–3.26) µg/g Cre Urine Monomethylarsonic acid level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 3.78 (2.93–4.64) µg/g Cre Cam (reference): 3.63 (3.21–4.64) µg/g Cre Urine Dimethylarsenic acid level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 27.50 (22.69–33.05) µg/g Cre Cam (reference): 26.24 (19.51–30.06) µg/g Cre Urine cadmium level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 0.998 (0.816–1.249) µg/g Cre Cam (reference): 0.832 (0.484–1.070) µg/g Cre Urine lead level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 3.22 (2.69–3.99) µg/g Cre Cam (reference): 2.31 (1.73–2.68) µg/g Cre Urine total mercury level Bao Dai (E-waste site): 0.52 (0.42–0.80) µg/g Cre Cam (reference): 0.34 (0.23–0.71) µg/g Cre	[22]
BFR	Human scalp hair Bui Dau E-waste recycler (n=14) Non recycler (n= 14) Dong Mai (n=28) Hanoi (n=14)	Toxicity	PBDEs: 23–639 ng/g in Bui Dau Non recyclers and general resident DM: 11 × 10¹ Hanoi:14 × 10¹ BD: 22 × 10¹ Recyclers in e-waste recycling sites and open dumping sites BD: 276 × 10²	[19]

Similarly, other studies by the same author showed that children living in an e-waste processing village had more blood-heavy metal and DNA damage levels than those from the reference village [27]. A study measured the concentrations of perchlorate, thiocyanate, and iodide in 131 serum samples and found an increased level of perchlorate in the serum of participants from e-waste recycling sites indicating greater exposure to e-waste recycling operations [30]. Schecter et al. conducted two studies that measured metals and organohalogens in the blood and urine of Vietnamese e-waste recyclers. They showed higher levels of certain PBDE congeners, DDT, arsenic, lead, and mercury concentrations [21, 22]. As there are limited studies that measure human biomarkers and the effects of toxic chemicals, detailed investigations on human exposure effects are required, particularly those focused on workers, pregnant women, and health effects in developing newborns.

The research gap and future challenges in Vietnam

From the overview of the existing research, most studies have focused on the exposure assessment rather than the health risk assessment of humans. Although several studies [4] have assessed various hazardous substances in e-waste, studies focusing on the short half-live chemicals such as phthalates, phosphate flame retardants, and bisphenols are still missing. This short-half live chemical exposure biomonitoring and investigating risk assessment are important due to their association with neurodevelopmental and behavioral effects [42, 43], reproductive effects [44], and respiratory effects [45], [46], [47]. Future studies should provide information on short half-life chemicals, potential health risks, and health and developmental impacts for people, including children and pregnant women living in e-waste recycling sites using human biological samples. Given the unique mixtures of chemicals in e-waste, additional studies on exposure to chemical mixtures and their risk to human health are needed. These findings will help to fulfil the knowledge gaps on the relationship between trace elements exposure and effects on human health, as well as provide a new perspective on environmental exposure and human health risks that could assist government organizations in developing necessary rules/regulations in the protection of health.

The gap in laws and legislation

The Vietnamese government has promulgated several legislations and governance frameworks on waste management, including the Amendment Law on Environmental Protection [48, 49], the National Strategy for Integrated Solid Waste Management up to 2025, and Vision Towards 2050 [50, 51], the Decree on Management of Waste and Discarded Materials [52], Decision on Prescribing Retrieval and Disposal of Discarded Products [53, 54], and Circular on Recall and Treatment of Discarded Products [55]. None of these, however, were related to the regulation of informal e-waste processing in Vietnam [56], [57], [58], [59]. There are rules for treating hazardous waste; however, there are no specific laws or regulations on e-waste. In Vietnam, the formal e-waste processing sectors have the proper equipment for transportation, collection, classification, and safe technologies for treating hazardous waste. Meanwhile, the informal sector has treated a larger volume of e-waste using simple, manual techniques/methods and participated in all the processing steps [60]. Secondhand markets and craft villages are also involved in e-waste processing in Vietnam. To date, e-waste is mostly handled in approximately 30 craft villages out of 90 waste recycling villages, mainly from the North, in a total of more than 3,000 craft villages in Vietnam [60]. In those villages, e-waste is dismantled and sorted manually into parts by workers with no or poor protective equipment; also, it is common to observe the processes of open burning of wires to extract copper and lead, chipping and melting plastic parts, and discharging residues to fields and riverbanks or ponds [60]. Previous studies showed a recycling chain of e-waste, including collection, reuse, refurbishment, dismantling, pre-processing, and end processing [6, 61], [62], [63]. Such studies can be effectively used in implementing e-waste processing strategies and regulations. Yet until now, processing e-waste has not been specifically regulated by the Vietnamese government [56]. Therefore, Vietnam needs proper documentation of the e-waste recycling policies and associated procedures for formal and informal e-waste processing sites. Implementation of the Basel Convention can guide the preparation of technical guidelines for the environmentally sound management of e-waste through the involvement of all stakeholders [1]. The Vietnamese government can ratify and fully implement conventions on the transboundary movement of e-waste, enact and enforce national legislation on e-waste management and provide adequate funding to cities for e-waste management and recycling [4]. Furthermore, the government can encourage to conduct of pilot projects to establish the management policy by applying the advanced management of e-waste like life cycle assessment, materials flow analysis and extended producer responsibility [64, 65].

Gap in the knowledge, attitude, and behavior on e-waste reuse and recycling

Previous studies showed that consumers’ unwillingness to pay disposal fees, users’ limited awareness, and the insufficiency of funds and investments are among the reasons for arising serious problems of e-waste management in Vietnam [66, 67]. Particularly, the shortcomings of the extended producer responsibility (EPR) are due to the weak awareness of the public and relevant stakeholders [57]. Data analyzed from 520 questionnaires revealed that environmental awareness and attitude toward recycling, social pressure, laws and regulations, cost of recycling, and inconvenience of recycling significantly directly influenced residents’ behavioral intention, with laws and regulations being the strongest construct significantly to predict individuals’ intention [59].

Liang reported that the level of concern over the environmental conditions among residents of the Bui e-waste informal recycling village in Northern Vietnam was lower than those reported in Thailand and China [67]. The findings also indicated that the respondents from Vietnam, Japan, and China were more knowledgeable than those from Thailand about the e-waste-related laws and regulations adopted in their respective countries. Also, a comparison of the responses from villages practising e-waste management systems in four countries showed that a lower number of the villagers of Bui Village (Vietnam) demonstrated positive perceptions than Hong Ren Old Village (China), Village #3 (Thailand) and Kamikatsu (Japan), toward the concern over their respective environmental conditions, the relationship between the increased use of electrical and electronic equipment and its effects on the environment, and the knowledge about e-waste laws and rules adopted [68].

Other questionnaire surveys of respondents from two villages each in Thailand, Vietnam, Japan, and China to elucidate consumer attitudes toward e-waste reuse and recycling practices adopted in their respective countries showed that Bui e-waste recycling villagers in Vietnam have demonstrated more of their positive attitudes than those of villagers in Thailand, Japan toward improving their environment, satisfying with e-waste-related laws, and supporting for extracting precious metals from e-waste [68]. There is low awareness of the hazards of informal e-waste recycling not only among affected workers but also communities. To reduce the health impacts of e-waste exposure, the WHO has launched an initiative on E-waste and child health. It aims to create greater awareness about health impacts, particularly in children, and solutions to e-waste management, work with other sectors to implement policies and actions that reduce harmful exposures and facilitate the development of country pilots to test and propose workable interventions that protect public health. The Vietnamese government could initiate these pilot projects that include local advocacy and communication about risks to concerned communities, capacity building of primary health care systems about risks, and capacity-building for monitoring and measuring improvements [4].

Conclusion and recommendation

The aim of this review is to focus on different hazardous compounds or chemicals released from e-waste and their effect on the environment and humans in Vietnam. The findings have shown how POPs, such as PBDEs, PCBs, PAHs and BPhs, and heavy metals, affect humans’ health and environmental components, including soil, water and air in Vietnam. Although some studies conducted exposure assessments with the above-mentioned compounds using biological markers, we found a shortfall of these studies on the association with health outcomes are not well understood, and mechanisms behind associations are not explored well. Therefore, our upcoming project focuses on conducting a health evaluation of residents, including vulnerable populations such as the elderly, pregnant women and children at informal e-waste recycling villages in Vietnam. This study will provide further insights and can support establishing appropriate e-waste management and regulation to protect residents from the adverse effects of e-waste exposure.

In addition, based on the current situation of e-waste exposure and potential health risks among residents living in informal e-waste processing areas in Vietnam, further risk communication and management should be considered implemented in the e-waste processing area, such as organizing training workshops and on-site instruction for household members to identify the potential hazards and health risks at their workplaces and homes, mentoring households in identifying the problems, and prioritizing the steps to abate the hazards and risks. Furthermore, an integrated communication program for the whole commune should be carried out, focusing on potential hazards from unsafe e-waste processing activities, recognizing early health problems, and applying measures for the protection of public health.

Corresponding author: Machiko Minatoya, Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 7, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan, E-mail: mminatoya@cehs.hokudai.ac.jp

Kritika Poudel and Rahel Mesfin Ketema contributed equally to this work.

Funding source: Japan Society for the Promotion of Science

Award Identifier / Grant number: JP 22KK0142

Funding source: Sumitomo Foundation

Award Identifier / Grant number: 193015

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Prof Reiko Kishi, director, and Prof Chihiro Miyashita, member, for their roles at the WHO Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health and Prevention of Chemical Hazards.

Research funding: The Sumitomo Foundation fiscal 2019 Grant for Environmental Research Projects, grant number 193015 JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP 22KK0142.
Author contribution: Conceptualization: MM and AI; Methodology: KP, RMK, HTTN, AI, MM; Validation: KP, RMK, HTTN, AI, MM; Writing-original draft: KP, and RMK; Writing – review & editing: KP, RMK, HTTN, AI, MM; Funding: MM and AI.
Conflict of interest/disclaimer: There is no conflict of interest to declare. The authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this article and they do not necessarily represent the views, decisions, or policies of the institutions with which they are affiliated.
Ethical consideration: This study does not involve human participants therefore ethical clearance was not required for this study.

References

1. UNEP. Technical guidelines on transboundary movements of electrical and electronic waste and used electrical and electronic equipment, in particular regarding the distinction between waste and non-waste under the Basel Convention. Geneva, Switzerland: Basel Convention; 2019.Search in Google Scholar

2. Perkins, DN, Brune Drisse, MN, Nxele, T, Sly, PD. E-waste: a global hazard. Ann Glob Health 2014;80:286–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2014.10.001.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

3. Ha, LT. Vietnam: country report on children’s environmental health. Rev Environ Health 2020;35:79–84. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2019-0085.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

4. World Health Organization. Children and digital dumpsites. E-waste exposure and child health. CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO licence; 2021.Search in Google Scholar

5. Forti, V, Baldé, C, Kuehr, R, Bel, G. The Global e-waste monitor 2020. Quantities, flows, and the circular economy potential. Bonn, Geneva and Rotterda: United Nations University/United Nations Institute for Training and Research, International Telecommunication Union, and International Solid Waste Association; 2020.Search in Google Scholar

6. Nguyen, DQ, Yamasue, E, Okumura, H, Ishihara, KN. Use and disposal of large home electronic appliances in Vietnam. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 2009;11:358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-009-0264-2.Search in Google Scholar

7. Tran, CD, Salhofer, SP. Analysis of recycling structure for e-waste in Vietnam. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 2018;20:110–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-016-0549-1.Search in Google Scholar

8. Matsukami, H, Tue, NM, Suzuki, G, Someya, M, Tuyen, LH, Viet, PH, et al.. Flame retardant emission from e-waste recycling operation in northern Vietnam: environmental occurrence of emerging organophosphorus esters used as alternatives for PBDEs. Sci Total Environ 2015;514:492–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.008.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

9. Matsukami, H, Suzuki, G, Someya, M, Uchida, N, Tue, NM, Tuyen, LH, et al.. Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and alternative flame retardants in surface soils and river sediments from an electronic waste-processing area in northern vietnam, 2012–2014. Chemosphere 2017;167:291–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.09.147.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

10. Tue, NM, Katsura, K, Suzuki, G, Tuyen le, H, Takasuga, T, Takahashi, S, et al.. Dioxin-related compounds in breast milk of women from Vietnamese e-waste recycling sites: levels, toxic equivalents and relevance of non-dietary exposure. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2014;106:220–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.04.046.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

11. Tue, NM, Sudaryanto, A, Minh, TB, Isobe, T, Takahashi, S, Viet, PH, et al.. Accumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls and brominated flame retardants in breast milk from women living in Vietnamese e-waste recycling sites. Sci Total Environ 2010;408:2155–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.01.012.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

12. Tue, NM, Takahashi, S, Suzuki, G, Isobe, T, Viet, PH, Kobara, Y, et al.. Contamination of indoor dust and air by polychlorinated biphenyls and brominated flame retardants and relevance of non-dietary exposure in Vietnamese informal e-waste recycling sites. Environ Int 2013;51:160–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2012.11.006.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

13. Ngo, HTT, Watchalayann, P, Nguyen, DB, Doan, HN, Liang, L. Evaluation of heavy metal exposure pathways on children from an informal e-waste processing village in Viet Nam. Hum Ecol Risk Assess Int J 2021;27:9–10.10.1080/10807039.2021.2000362Search in Google Scholar

14. Anh, HQ, Nam, VD, Tri, TM, Ha, NM, Ngoc, NT, Main, PTN, et al.. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in plastic products, indoor dust, sediment and fish from informal e-waste recycling sites in Vietnam: a comprehensive assessment of contamination, accumulation pattern, emissions, and human exposure. Environ Geochem Health 2017;39:935–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-016-9865-6.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

15. Anh, HQ, Tomioka, K, Tue, NM, Tri, TM, Minh, TB, Takahashi, S. PBDEs and novel brominated flame retardants in road dust from northern Vietnam: levels, congener profiles, emission sources and implications for human exposure. Chemosphere 2018;197:389–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.01.066.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

16. Takahashi, S, Tue, NM, Takayanagi, C, Tuyen, LH, Suzuki, G, Matsukami, H, et al.. PCBs, PBDEs and dioxin-related compounds in floor dust from an informal endof-life vehicle recycling site in northern Vietnam: contamination levels and implications for human exposure. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 2017;19:1333–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-016-0571-3.Search in Google Scholar

17. Wannomai, T, Matsukami, H, Uchida, N, Takahashi, F, Tuyen, LH, Viet, PH, et al.. Bio accessibility and exposure assessment of flame retardants via dust ingestion for workers in e-waste processing workshops in northern Vietnam. Chemosphere 2020;251:126632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126632.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

18. Someya, M, Suzuki, G, Ionas, AC, Tue, NM, Xu, F, Matsukami, H, et al.. Occurrence of emerging frame retardants from e-waste recycling activities in the northern part of Vietnam. Emerging Contam 2016;2:58–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emcon.2015.10.002.Search in Google Scholar

19. Muto, M, Isobe, T, Ramu, K, Minh, N, Viet, P, Takahashi, S, et al.. Contamination of brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in human hair from E-waste recycling site in Vietnam. Environ Sci Chem 2012:229–37. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Contamination-of-Brominated-Flame-Retardants-(-BFRs-Muto-Isobe/099625dc11c94f3c1890e28b291a4452c0be87ff.Search in Google Scholar

20. Eguchi, A, Nomiyama, K, Minh Tue, N, Trang, PT, Hung Viet, P, Takahashi, S, et al.. Residue profiles of organohalogen compounds in human serum from e-waste recycling sites in North Vietnam: association with thyroid hormone levels. Environ Res 2015;137:440–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.01.007.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

21. Schecter, A, Sjodin, A, Quynh, HT, Caldwell, K, Kincaid, J, Lanceta, J, et al.. Biomonitoring of organohalogen compounds and metals in Vietnamese female electronic waste recyclers. J Occup Environ Med 2018;60:191–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000001200.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

22. Schecter, A, Kincaid, J, Quynh, HT, Lanceta, J, Tran, HTT, Crandall, R, et al.. Biomonitoring of metals, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated biphenyls, and persistent pesticides in Vietnamese female electronic waste recyclers. J Occup Environ Med 2018;60:191–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001200.Search in Google Scholar

23. Tue, NM, Takahashi, S, Subramanian, A, Sakai, S, Tanabe, S. Environmental contamination and human exposure to dioxin-related compounds in e-waste recycling sites of developing countries. Environ Sci Process Impacts 2013;15:1326–31. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3em00086a.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

24. Tue, NM, Sudaryanto, A, Nhat, BH, Takahashi, S, Viet, PH, Tanabe, S. Contamination by PCBs and BFRs in Vietnamese human milk associated with recycling of e-waste. In: Obayashi, Y, Isobe, T, Subramanian, A, Suzuki, S, Tanabe, S, editors. Interdisciplinary studies on environmental chemistry. Tokyo, Japan: TERRAPUB; 2009: 91–7 pp.Search in Google Scholar

25. Hoa, NTQ, Anh, HQ, Tue, NM, Trung, NT, Da, LN, Van Quy, T, et al.. Soil and sediment contamination by unsubstituted and methylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in an informal e-waste recycling area, northern Vietnam: occurrence, source apportionment, and risk assessment. Sci Total Environ 2020;709:135852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135852.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

26. Oguri, T, Suzuki, G, Matsukami, H, Uchida, N, Tue, NM, Tuyen, LH, et al.. Exposure assessment of heavy metals in an e-waste processing area in northern Vietnam. Sci Total Environ 2018;621:1115–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.115.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

27. Ngo, HTT, Liang, L, Nguyen, DB, Doan, HN, Watchalayann, P. Blood heavy metals and DNA damage among children living in an informal E-waste processing area in Vietnam. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 2021;27:541–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2020.1736985.Search in Google Scholar

28. Ngo, HTT, Watchalayann, P, Nguyen, DB, Doan, HN, Liang, L. Environmental health risk assessment of heavy metal exposure among children living in an informal e-waste processing village in Viet Nam. Sci Total Environ 2021;763:142982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142982.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

29. Wannomai, T, Matsukami, H, Uchida, N, Takahashi, F, Tuyen, LH, Viet, PH, et al.. Inhalation bio accessibility and health risk assessment of flame retardants in indoor dust from Vietnamese e-waste-dismantling workshops. Sci Total Environ 2021;760:143862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143862.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

30. Eguchi, A, Kunisue, T, Wu, Q, Trang, PT, Viet, PH, Kannan, K, et al.. Occurrence of perchlorate and thiocyanate in human serum from e-waste recycling and reference sites in Vietnam: association with thyroid hormone and iodide levels. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 2014;67:29–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-014-0021-y.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

31. Tue, NM, Suzuki, G, Takahashi, S, Isobe, T, Trang, PTK, Viet, PH, et al.. Evaluation of Dioxin-like activities in settled house dust from Vietnamese e-waste recycling sites: relevance of Polychlorinated/Brominated Dibenzo-p-Dioxin/Furans and Dioxin like PCBs. Environ Sci Technol 2010;44:9195–200. https://doi.org/10.1021/es102505j.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

32. Altarawneh, MK, Saeed, A, Al-harahsheh, M, Dlugogorski, BZ. Thermal decomposition of brominated flame retardants (BFRs): products and mechanisms. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2019;70:212–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2018.10.004.Search in Google Scholar

33. Ríos, JM, Mammana, SB, Moreira, E, Poma, G, Malarvannan, G, Barrera-Oro, E, et al.. Accumulation of PBDEs and MeO-PBDEs in notothenioid fish from the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica: an interspecies comparative study. Mar Pollut Bull 2021;168:112453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112453.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

34. Zhou, Y, Liu, J. Emissions, environmental levels, sources, formation pathways, and analysis of polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2018;25:33082–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3307-1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

35. Frederiksen, M, Vorkamp, K, Thomsen, M, Knudsen, LE. Human internal and external exposure to PBDEs--a review of levels and sources. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2009;212:109–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2008.04.005.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

36. Hens, B, Hens, L. Persistent threats by persistent pollutants: chemical nature, concerns and future policy regarding PCBs-what are we heading for? Toxics 2017;6:1. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics6010001.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

37. Yu, D, Duan, H, Song, Q, Liu, Y, Li, Y, Li, J, et al.. Characterization of brominated flame retardants from e-waste components in China. Waste Manag 2017;68:498–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.07.033.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

38. Nag, R, Cummins, E. Human health risk assessment of lead (Pb) through the environmental-food pathway. Sci Total Environ 2022;810:151168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151168.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

39. Abubakar, A, Zangina, AS, Maigari, AI, Badamasi, MM, Ishak, MY, Abdullahi, AS, et al.. Pollution of heavy metal threat posed by e-waste burning and its assessment of human health risk. Environ Sci Pollut Res 2022;29:61065–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19974-6.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

40. Le Luu, T. Remarks on the current quality of groundwater in Vietnam. Environ Sci Pollut Res 2019;26:1163–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9631-z.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

41. Parvez, SM, Jahan, F, Brune, MN, Gorman, JF, Rahman, MJ, Carpenter, D, et al.. Health consequences of exposure to e-waste: an updated systematic review. Lancet Planet Health 2021;5:905–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2542-5196(21)00263-1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

42. Minatoya, M, Kishi, R. A review of recent studies on Bisphenol A and Phthalate Exposures and child neurodevelopment. Int J Environ Res Publ Health 2021;18:3585. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073585.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

43. Minatoya, M, Sasaki, S, Araki, A, Miyashita Chihiro, M, Itoh, S, Yamamoto, J, et al.. Cord blood Biphenol A levels and reproductive and thyroid hormone levels of neonates: the Hokkaido Study on Environment and Children’s Health. Epidemiology 2017;28:S3–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/ede.0000000000000716.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

44. Araki, A, Mitsui, T, Miyashita, C, Nakajima, T, Naito, H, Ito, S, et al.. Association between maternal exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and reproductive hormone levels in fetal blood: the Hokkaido study on environment and children’s health. PLoS One 2014;9:e109039. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109039.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

45. Ait Bamai, Y, Araki, A, Nomura, T, Kawai, T, Tsuboi, T, Kobayashi, S, et al.. Association of filaggrin gene mutations and childhood eczema and wheeze with phthalates and phosphorus flame retardants in house dust: the Hokkaido study on Environment and Children’s Health. Environ Int 2018;121:102–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.08.046.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

46. Araki, A, Ait Bamai, Y, Bastiaensen, M, Van den Eede, N, Kawai, T, Tsuboi, T, et al.. Combined exposure to phthalate esters and phosphate flame retardants and plasticizers and their associations with wheeze and allergy symptoms among school children. Environ Res 2020;183:109212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109212.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

47. Ketema, RM, Ait Bamai, Y, Miyashita, C, Saito, T, Kishi, R, Ikeda-Araki, A. Phthalates mixture on allergies and oxidative stress biomarkers among children: the Hokkaido study. Environ Int 2022;160:107083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107083.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

48. Vietnam National Assembly. Law on environmental protection; 2005. Available from: https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Tai-nguyen-Moi-truong/Luat-Bao-ve-moi-truong-2005-52-2005-QH11-7021.aspx.Search in Google Scholar

49. Vietnam National Assembly. Law on environmental protection; 2014. Available from: https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Tai-nguyen-Moi-truong/Luat-bao-ve-moi-truong-2014-238636.aspx.Search in Google Scholar

50. The Vietnam Prime Minister. Decision on approving the National strategy for integrated solid waste management up to 2025, and vision towards 2050; 2009. Available from: https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Bo-may-hanh-chinh/Quyet-dinh-2149-QD-TTg-phe-duyet-chien-phe-duyet-chien-luoc-quoc-gia-luoc-quoc-gia-quan-ly-tong-hop-chat-thai-ran-den-nam-2025-tam-nhin-den-nam-2050-99096.aspx.Search in Google Scholar

51. The Vietnam Prime Minister. Decision on approving adjustments to the national strategy for integrated solid waste management up to 2025, and vision towards 2050; 2018. Available from: https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Tai-nguyen-Moi-truong/Quyet-dinh-491-QD-TTg-2018-dieu-chinh-Chien-luoc-quoc-gia-quan-ly-tong-hop-chat-thai-ran-381368.aspx.Search in Google Scholar

52. The Vietnam Government. Degree on management of waste and discarded materials; 2015. Available from: https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Tai-nguyen-Moi-truong/Decree-No-38-2015-ND-CP-on-management-of-waste-and-discarded-materials-273750.aspx.Search in Google Scholar

53. The Vietnam Prime Minister. Decision on prescribing retrieval and disposal of discarded products; 2013. Available from: https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/EN/Doanh-nghiep/Decision-No-50-2013-QD-TTg-prescribing-retrieval-and-disposal-of-discarded-products/204357/tieng-anh.aspx.Search in Google Scholar

54. The Vietnam Prime Minister. Decision on providing regulations on recall and treatment of discarded products; 2015. Available from: https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Tai-nguyen-Moi-truong/Quyet-dinh-16-2015-QD-TTg-thu-hoi-xu-ly-san-pham-thai-bo-275511.aspx.Search in Google Scholar

55. The Vietnam ministry of natural resources and environment (MONRE), 2017.Search in Google Scholar

56. Hai, HT, Hung, HV, Quang, ND. An overview of electronic waste recycling in Vietnam. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 2015;19:536–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-015-0448-x.Search in Google Scholar

57. Nguyen, DQ, Ha, VH, Eiji, Y, Huynh, TH. Material flows from electronic waste: understanding the shortages for extended producer responsibility implementation in vietnam. Procedia CIRP 2017;61:651–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2016.11.184.Search in Google Scholar

58. Pariatamby, A, Victor, D. Policy trends of e-waste management in Asia. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 2013;15:411–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-013-0136-7.Search in Google Scholar

59. Thi Thu Nguyen, H, Hung, RJ, Lee, CH, Nguyen, HTT. Determinants of residents’ E-waste recycling behavioral intention: a case study from vietnam. Sustainability 2019;11:1. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010164.Search in Google Scholar

60. Yoshida, A, Terazono, A, Ballesteros, FC, Nguyen, DQ, Sukandar, S, Kojima, M, et al.. E-waste recycling processes in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Vietnam: a case study of cathode ray tube TVs and monitors. Resour Conserv Recycl 2016;106:48–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.10.020.Search in Google Scholar

61. He, W, Li, G, Ma, X, Wang, H, Huang, J, Xu, M, et al.. WEEE recovery strategies and the WEEE treatment status in China. J Hazard Mater 2006;136:502–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.04.060.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

62. Salhofer, S, Tesar, M. Assessment of removal of components containing hazardous substances from small WEEE in Austria. J Hazard Mater 2011;186:1481–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.12.030.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

63. Wang, F, Huisman, J, Meskers, CEM, Schluep, M, Stevels, A, Hageluken, C. The Best-of-2-Worlds philosophy: developing local dismantling and global infrastructure network for sustainable e-waste treatment in emerging economies. Waste Manag 2012;32:2134–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.03.029.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

64. Chan, JKY, Wong, MH. A review of environmental fate, body burdens, and human health risk assessment of PCDD/Fs at two typical electronic waste recycling sites in China. Sci Total Environ 2012;463–464:1111–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.07.098.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

65(a). Frazzoli, C, Orisakwe, OE, Dragone, R, Mantovani, A. Diagnostic health risk assessment of electronic waste on the general population in developing countries scenarios. Environ Impact Assess Rev 2010;30:388–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2009.12.004.Search in Google Scholar

(b) Afroz, R, Masud, MM, Akhtar, R, Duasa, JB. Survey and analysis of public knowledge, awareness and willingness to pay in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia – a case study on household WEEE management. J Clean Prod 2013;52:185–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.02.004.Search in Google Scholar

66. Nnorom, IC, Osibanjo, O. Overview of electronic waste (e-waste) management practices and legislations, and their poor applications in the developing countries. Resour Conserv Recycl 2008;52:843–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2008.01.004.Search in Google Scholar

67. Liang, L. Consumer attitudes toward e-waste reuse and recycling in selected villages in Thailand, vietnam, Japan, and China. J Solid Waste Technol Manag 2021;47:696–70. https://doi.org/10.5276/jswtm/2021.696.Search in Google Scholar

68. Liang, L. Perceptions of residents toward e-waste reuse and recycling in selected villages in Thailand, Vietnam, Japan, and China. Int J Environ Waste Manag 2021;28:506–20. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijewm.2021.118874.Search in Google Scholar

Received: 2022-11-20

Revised: 2023-01-16

Accepted: 2023-01-22

Published Online: 2023-02-09

Published in Print: 2024-09-25

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2022-0233

Keywords for this article

e-waste processing; hazardous substances; health risk assessment; informal and formal industries; Vietnam

Creative Commons

BY 4.0