European Ink Recipes Found in ‘Ali Ḥosseini’s 19th Century Persian Treatise Kašf al-Ṣanāye‘ (Discovering Crafts) – کشف الصنایع علی حسینی

1 Introduction

When it comes to traditional Persian inks and ink recipes, the author has investigated multiple treatises: Ādāb-e Ḵaṭ (The Manners of Calligraphy) by ‘Abdollāh Ṣeyrafi (14th C), Ṣerāṭ al-Soṭur (The Bridge of Lines) by Solṭān ‘Ali Mašhadi, Medād al-Ḵoṭuṭ (Calligraphy Inks) by Mir ‘Ali Heravi (16th C), Rasm al-Ḵaṭ (Rules of Calligraphy), Savād al-Ḵaṭ (Knowledge of Calligraphy), and Ādāb al-Mašq (The Manners of Writing) by Majnun Rafiqi Heravi (16th C), Ādāb al-Mašq (The Manners of Writing) by Bābā Šāh Iṣfahāni (16th C), Osul va Qavāed-e Ḵoṭuṭ-e Sette (Doctrines and Rules of The Six Styles of Calligraphy) by Fatḥollāh Sabzevāri (16th C), and Ḵaṭ va Morakkab (Calligraphy and Ink) by Ḥossein ‘Aqili Rostamdāri (16th C) to name but a few. For a list of famous master calligraphers and their treatises, refer to Table 2. For detailed Persian black ink recipes, refer to Zekrgoo (2014) and Zekrgoo, Nel, and Sloggett (2017). For detailed recipes pertaining to Persian sizing material, paint palette, and paper dyes, refer to Barkeshli (2003, 2013, 2016 respectively.

The mentioned treatises are focused on recipes of traditional Persian crafts related to book production (inks, pigments, dyes, paper, sizing, etc.), many of which were completed during the 16th century when the Safavid Empire of Persia (1501–1736) came into power. During this time, the Islamic lands were ruled by three major empires: Ottoman, Mughal, and Persian (Blair 2006: 417). It was also in this era that Shiism became the official religion of the Persian Empire, and there was a movement focused on rediscovering Persian identity which included arts and crafts.

2 The Treatise

Kašf al-Ṣanāye‘ (کشف الصنایع) meaning “Discovering Crafts”, is a 19th century manuscript written in beautiful Nasta’liq calligraphic style (Figure 1) by the Persian scholar ‘Ali Ḥosseini. This copy of the manuscript is in good condition and is housed at Tehran University Central Library which was investigated by the Author during his visit in 2015 (and requested as digitised copy). What makes this manuscript unique, is that while the treatise does mention traditional Persian crafts, a major section is dedicated to western crafts and recipes which he mentions having translated from French sources. Ḥosseini used the English terms for most of the ingredients in the treatises, but in Persian alphabet (transliterated), which makes identification of the ingredients harder; all that he provided was an appendix at the end of the manuscript listing some of the ingredients with English terminology, and their Persian transliteration equivalent (Figure 2).

Figure 1:

Pages from the manuscript Kašf al-Ṣanāye‘ by ‘Ali Ḥosseini (19th C) with recipes on European ink, gardener’s ink, and printing ink. 2261 Tehran University Central Library.

Figure 2:

Appendix from the manuscript Kašf al-Ṣanāye‘ by ‘Ali Ḥosseini (19th C) containing English terminology and Persian transliteration equivalent.

Little is known about Ḥosseini’s life besides what he himself has written in the introductory section of his manuscript. That is, being a scholar during the Qajar dynasty (1789–1925) of Persia and having access to French sources on the different trades and crafts, which he translated into Persian (Afkari 2000; Mayil-Hirawi 1993). The names of the original sources however have not been mentioned. The author first wrote a draft of the manuscript and two years later after conducting his own experiments on some of the recipes and finding additional information, he completed the treatise.

For this study, the manuscript was investigated in detail, and the inks were divided into 13 categories based on colour, name given, and type, and the recipes were translated from Persian to English. Steingass (2008) Persian-English dictionary was used extensively for technical terminology. The recipes for each category are numbered R1, R2, R3 etc. The English transliteration of the Persian words are based on the Encyclopaedia Iranica transliteration guideline (2022) below (Table 1). The classical Persian units of measurement are extracted from Buyaghchi, Afsharpur, and Haddadi (2017).

Table 1:

Transliteration of Persian alphabet based on the Encyclopedia Iranica system.

Consonants		Vowels
Persian	Transliteration	Persian	Transliteration
آ	ā		a
ب	b		e
پ	p		o
ت	t	ا	ā
ث	‘	یا	ā
ج	j	و	u
چ	č		i
ح	ḥ		ow
خ	ḵ		aw
د	d		ey/ay
ذ	ḏ
ر	r
ز	z
ژ	ž
س	s
ش	š
ص	ṣ
ض	ż
ط	ṭ
ظ	ẓ
ع	ʿ
غ	ḡ
ف	f
ق	q
ک	k
گ	g
ل	l
م	m
ن	n
و	v/u
ه	h
ی	Y
ء	’

3 Ink Recipes and Categories

For a list of ingredients and measurements of the recipes, refer to Table 3.

1. (i) RED INKS

R1:

مداد سرخ رنگ - در یک شیشه سرکه چهار اونس برازل اود ساییده، بیامیزند و بجوشانند تا نصف آن باقی ماند. پس از آن از پارچه صاف نمایند و در آن سه اونس سفوف راک الم بیامیزند و بکار برند.

‘Making red ink: Add 4 ounces (113.39 g) brazilwood to a glass container filled with vinegar; boil to half its weight. Afterwards, filter through cloth and add 3 ounces (85.04 g) of powdered rock alum, and use.’

A similiar recipe but with different proportions can be found in Beasley (1895: 358) and Mitchel and Hepworth (1904: 114).

R2:

نوع دیگر- برازل اود ۲ حصه، شب یمانی نیم حصه، د کریم اف تارتار نیم حصه، آب ۱۶ حصه بهم آمیخته، بجوشانند، هرگاه نصف آب باقی بماند در پارچه صاف کرده، نیم حصه صمغ اضافه نموده بكاربرند.

‘Another method: 2 portions of brazilwood, half a portion of alum, and half a portion cream of tartar is added to 16 portions of water. Mix and boil to half its weight, afterwards, filter through cloth and add half portion of gum Arabic.’

The exact same recipe and proportions can be found in The Druggist’s General Receipt Book by Beasley (1895: 358).

R3:

مرکب سرخ برای مهر نمودن - ورملین چهار جزء، سلفت اف ایرن یک جزء، روغن به قدرحاجت و رنگ سرخ که پسند خاطر باشد، بهم آمیزند و بکار برند.

‘Red ink for seals: 4 part vermilion, and 1 part sulphate of iron is mixed with enough oil and additional red colourant to give you the desired colour.’

A recipe with same ingredients but different proportions under the name Dr. Smellie’s Ink (for marking linen) can be found in Beasley (1895: 362).

R4:

سرخ بنيت روشنای استیفن اندک کامن سوداپتاس با کار بونیت اف آمونيا گرفته المضاعف هر دو سفوف کرودار کل - کم کم در آن اندازند چنانچه جوش آن تمام شود آن را با پارچه صاف کنند و نیم حصه اكزالک الومنيا شامل نمایند و بعد از سرد شدن به قدر کفایت کوچنيل ساییده در آن آمیزند و بعد از بیست و چهار ساعت با پارچه صاف کنند مرکب سرخ شود.

‘Stephen’s red: get some common soda potash and carbonate of ammonia in equal portions; mix well and boil. Then filter through cloth and add ½ parts of aluminium oxalate. After it is cooled down grind and add desired amount of cochineal. After 24 h, filter through cloth.’

Most likely Ḥosseini is referring to Dr Henry Stephen’s red ink. Dr Stephen’s registered the Stephen’s Ink Company in 1832 (Reissland et al. 2017; Wild 2014) which became one of the biggest ink producers of Great Britain.

• (ii) BLUE INKS:

R1:

مرکب آبی -سلفت آف اندگو سه اونس در یک گلن آب خالص اندازند تا بگدازد و با یک اونس اكزالک اسید و دو اونس عمده پرشین بلو در یک شیشه آب حل کرده و اول از آب پرشین بلو که آهن در آن زیاد است آن را از تیزاب دور کرده از آب باران یا آب قطره شستن لازم است.

‘Dissolve 3 ounces (85.04 g) sulphate of indigo in a gallon of water and add this to a solution made of 2 ounces (56.69 g) common Prussian blue, and an ounce (28.34 g) of oxalic acid in a bottle. Remember that Prussian blue contains iron, hence, the acid needs to be reduced by being washed and mixed with rainwater and distilled water; refrain from using harsh water.’

Prussian blue ([Fe(II) (CN)₆]₄) (Eastaugh 2008) could also read Persian blue when written in Persian.

R2:

نوع دیگر، چائیز بلو دو اونس، آب گرم جوشیده یک شیشه، اکزالک اسید یک اونس. اول چائیز را در آب گذارده بعد در آن اسید آمیزند فورا مركب شود.

‘Another method: 2 ounces (56.69 g) Chinese blue, bottle of preboiled warm water, and 1 ounce (28.34 g) oxalic acid. Place Chinese blue in the water, afterwards add the acid; it will turn to ink immediately.’

The Persian writing at the beginning of the recipe reads “Čaiz blu”, which is most likely “Chinese blue”. According to Eastaugh (2008), it could refer to both Prussian blue, and Han blue (BaCuSi₄O₁₀). Based on the rest of the recipes, it is most likely Prussian blue.

R3:

مرکب نیلگون - سلفت آف اندگو را در آب مثل شربت گداخته، مرکب نمایند، و اگر کم رنگ خواهند اندکی چاک در آن بیامیزند.

‘Indigo ink: Dissolve sulphate of indigo in water as you would with cordial (syrup), and should you want a lighter coloured ink, add some chalk.’

Beasley gives a similar recipe under the category of Colours for Liqueurs: “Pink is given by cochineal; yellow by saffron or safflower; violet by litmus; blue by sulphate of indigo, saturated with chalk” (1895: 324)

R4:

سفوف مداد اسود و سلفت اف ایرن دو جزء، صمغ یک جزء، هر دو را یکجا ساییده، سفوف سازند و یک اونس او را در کاغذ بپیچند. و از یک اونس این سفوف نیم شیشه درست خواهد شد.

‘2 parts powdered black ink and iron sulphate, and one part gum Arabic are beaten to a powder, then wrap an ounce of this in paper. Half a bottle of ink can be made with 1 ounce of this powder.’

R5:

بنيت بلو روشنای استیفن کامن پرشین بلو، یعنی رنگ آبی که مال ایران است آن را اول در سلفرک اسید که تیز باشد تر کند و باز چند قطره آب شسته، خشک نمایند. بدین طریق که آن را در ر«اكزالک اسید» خوب می گذارند بعد حصه «پرشین بلو» در یک حصه «اگزالک اسید» تر کند و آب به قدر کفاف ریخته آنگاه بکار برند.

‘Stephen’s common Prussian blue, meaning the blue colour that is from Iran: Dip Prussian blue in strong sulphuric acid, then wash with few drops of water and allow to dry. Afterwards soak 1 part of it, in 1 part oxalic acid and add enough water and use as desired.’

As previously mentioned, Persian and Prussian is written similarly in this treatise which is why Ḥosseini mistakenly refers to it as blue from Iran.

1. (iii) GREEN INKS

R1:

مرکب سبز و سیاه - مازوی جوکوب پانزده حصه در آب خالص دويست جزء تا یک ساعت بجوشانند بعد در پارچه صاف نموده سلفت اف ایرن ۵ جزء، براده آهن ۴ جزء در آن مخلوط سازند و نیم پاینت سلوشن نیل سرمه سا که با سه حصه سلفرک اسید که خوب ساخته باشند. این مرکب سبز نوشته می شود و چون خشک می گردد بسیار روان می باشد.

‘Green-black ink: Boil 15 parts powdered gall nuts in 200 parts of water for an hour, then filter through cloth. Add 5 parts of iron sulphate, 4 parts of iron filings, and half a pint (473.18 g) of the solution of indigo mixed with sulphuric acid. This is a green ink that is extremely smooth once dried.’

This recipe is somewhat similar to a recipe by Mitchel and Hepworth (1904: 95) but with different proportions and the addition of chalk.

R2:

نوع دیگر کلسنائید استیوناتریت اف كروم به قدر حاجت به آب آمیخته، بنویسند.

‘Another method: Add desired amount of calcinated acetonitrile of chrome to water and use.’

The word at the beginning of the recipe reads “Kalsenā’id” which is most likely “calcinated”.

R3:

نوع دیگر بلو ورنگ زرد به قدر حاجت ریخته، بنویسند.

‘Mix blue and yellow to the desired amount, and use.’

R4:

کریم اف تارتر یک جزء، زنگار دو جزء، آب خالص بیست جزء بهم آمیخته، بجوشانند و بکار برند.

‘Mix 1 part cream of tartar and 2 parts verdigris in 20 parts pure water. Then boil and use as desired.’

A very similar recipe is found in books by Beasley (1895: 360) and Mitchel and Hepworth (1904: 114).

1. (iv) GOLDEN INKS:

R1:

ورق طلا بیست و دو عدد، سفوف طلا نیم اونس، جوهر شراب، یعنی اسپریت سی قطره، شهد خالص سی گرین، صمغ عربی چهار درم، آب باران یا آب قطره چهار اونس. اول طلا را در شهد و صمغ حل نمایند بعد از آن آب و اسپریت شامل کنند.

‘22 pieces of leaf gold, ½ ounce (14.17 g) powdered gold, 30 drops of alcohol (Johar-e Sharāb) or spirits, 30 grains (1.95 g) of honey, 4 derams (60 g) gum Arabic, 4 ounces of rainwater or distilled water. First mix and bray the gold in honey and gum, then add water and spirit.’

1. CHINESE INKS:

R1:

مداد چینی - دوده چراغ را در آب پطاس ملایم حل کنند چون خوب حل شود و مثل شیره گردد، اندک اندک اب پطاس بالايش بریزند و صاف نمایند، باز چند دفعه با آب شسته، خشک کنند بعد از آن دوده خشک شده را در یک ظرف نهند و جل قورباغه یا ایرش ماس را در آب گرم خوب خیسانده و آمیخته که مثل شربت شود و در دوده انداخته خوب حل نمایند چند قطره آسنس اف سک و اسنس آف عنبریوس مخلوط کرده، بکار برند.

‘Chinese ink: Slowly mix soot of lamp with potash water until a honey like consistency, then add potash water on top little by little, and filter. Clean with water a few times and allow to dry. Then place dried soot in a plate. Now soak frog moss (Joll-e Qurbaḡe) or Irish moss in warm water and mix till it looks like syrup/cordial, then add to the soot and bray well and add a few drops essence of musk and essence of ambergris, mix and use as desired.’

The underlined term in the recipe reads “essence of sok”. According to Steingass (2008: 687) the compound word “sokab” means musk water and hence “sok” means musk.

A similar recipe with the name Indian ink is seen in Mitchel and Hepworth (1904: 30).

1. INDIAN INKS

R1:

مداد هندی - دوده را در آب ایزنکلاس حل کنند و قرصها ساخته ورق طلا و یا نقره بر آن بپیچند و بکار برند. و بدانند که اگر از سردی مداد در کاغذ سیاهی پهن شود قدري الكوهال یعنی جوهر شراب در نیم شیشه آب آمیخته به قدر نصف اونس روغن قرنفل در آن ریخته، حرکت دهند و از آن چند قطره یا زیادتر به قدر حاجت در مرکب ریزند. این آمیزش گاهی مرکب خراب نمی شود و اگر دهنیت در مرکب باشد باید برگ بیل را در قدری سرکه حل نموده در مرکب آمیزند.

‘Indian ink: Mix soot in an isinglass solution and make small ink cakes, then wrap goldleaf or silver leaf around it, and use. And remember that if due to cold temperature, the writing on the paper bleeds, mix some alcohol in half a bottle of water, then add half ounce of clove oil and mix well. Add a few drops of this concoction to the ink. This will prevent the ink from getting damaged. And if ink contains oil, mix some leaves of Indian bael in some vinegar, and add to the ink.’

1. ENGLISH INKS:

R1:

مرکب انگریزی - لاک اود، یعنی چوب بقم را در آب به قدر دو شیشه بجوشانند و آتش را بگیرند بعد یک رطل و نیم بلوکیانس جوکوب، شش اونس سلفت ایرن، یک اونس اسلیت اف کاپر، شش اونس شکر باریک سوده و دوازده اونس صمغ ام غيلان اضافه کرده بجوشانند و بگذارند تا رنگش سیاه گردد، بعد از آن بکار برند.

‘Boil logwood in water, the amount of 2 bottles, then add 1 ½ raṭl (584.64 g) of powdered Prussian blue (blue cyan/cyanide blue) 6 ounces (170.09 g) sulphate of iron, 1 ounce (28.34 g) acetate of copper, 6 ounces (170.09 g) pounded sugar, 12 ounces (340.19 g) Ummu Ghailān gum (gum Arabic). Boil until the liquid turns black and use as desired.’

The first underlined word in the recipe reads “blu kiyāns” which is most likely cyanide blue, another name for Prussian blue which is seen repeatedly in this treatise. The second underlined word reads “Eslit of kāper” which is most likely acetate of copper.

A similar recipe with same ingredients is found in the book “Forty Centuries of Ink” by Carvalho (1904: 196).

R2:

أيضأ مرکب سرخ- برازل اود جوکوب چهار اونس در یک شیشه آب، روی آتش گذارده بجوشانند تا ثلث شود و شب یمانی دو درم ساییده در آن ریخته، مخلوط کنند و بگذارند تا سرد شود پس در پارچه صاف نمایند و قدری سال امونیاک با او بیامیزند و بکار برند، بسیار خوشرنگ و روان شود.

‘Another red ink: Place 4 ounces (113.39 g) pounded brazilwood in a bottle of water and boil until one third of it remains. Then add ground alum, mix, and allow to cool. Afterwards filter through cloth and add some sal ammoniac and use for it shall be a beautiful, coloured ink.’

1. (viii) EUROPEAN INKS

R1:

طریق ساختن مرکب اروپا - یک رطل مازو را جوکوب کرده در ده رطل آب بسیار گرم اندازند و سوم حصه آب سلفت اف ایرن در آن آمیزند و سه اونس صمغ عربی در آب حل نموده و قدری قرنفل جوکوب کرده با چند قطره کربوسوت در آن اندازند یا کربانیک اسید را در جوهر شراب گداخته بياميزند و اگر مازو را ۲٤ ساعت در آب گذارده بعد از پارچه صاف نموده اجزای مذکور را در آن مخلوط نمایند بهتر از آن خواهد بود.

‘Method of making European ink: Take a raṭl (389.76 g) of gall nuts and beat them to a powder, then place them in 10 raṭl (3.89 kg) of hot water. Then add an iron sulphate solution followed by 3 ounces (85.04 g) of liquid gum Arabic, some powdered clove (qaranfol) and a few drops of carbo-soot or mix carbonic acid with alcohol. And if gall nuts are left to soak for 24 h, filtered, and have the rest of the ingredients added, it shall be of better quality.’

R2:

نوع دیگر- مازوی جوکوب ۱۲ اونس در پانصد توله آب سرد یک هفته بخیسانند، بعد سلفت اف ایرن شش اونس گرفته در آب ممزوج کرده در آن بیامیزند. پس شش اونس صمغ عربی را در آب حل کرده در آن بیامیزند و پنج قطره کربوسوت در آن چکانند. و اگر خواهند که مرکب بسیار سیاه شود مازو را بریان کرده به استعمال آرند و به احتیاط بریان کنند که نه بسوزد و نه خام بماند.

‘Another method is to soak 12 ounces (340.19 g) of powdered gall nuts in 500 tule (8.1 kg) of cold water. Then dissolve 6 ounces (170.09 g) of iron sulphate in water and add to the gall extract. Add 6 ounces (170.09 g) gum Arabic that is dissolved in water, with five drops of carbo-soot. And if you want the ink to be extremely dark, roast the gall nuts (prior to pounding) but do not burn them.’

1. GARDENER’S INKS

R1:

طریق مرکب باغبانان - کلورد اف پلاتینم دو درم در یک باتلی آب ریخته دهن آن را گرفته، نگاهدارند و از قلم که بدان نوشته می شود بر لوح چست نویسند، حروف سیاه پیدا خواهد شد که از آب و آفتاب محو نمی شود، و بدین جهت اسامی اشجار را با آن می نویسند.

‘Method of making Gardener’s (Bāqbān) ink. Add 2 deram (30 g) chloride of platinum in a bottle of water. Close the spout with your finger and keep. They use this ink on strong tablets/boards and it shall be a very dark ink that would not disappear due to water or sunlight; therefore, they use this ink to write family trees (Ašjār).’

Two similar recipes are found. One for writing on zinc labels by dissolving 100 g of chloride of platina in a pint of water (Beasley 1895: 361), and the other referred to as purple platinum marking ink, uses 1 part platinum chloride in 16 parts of water (Mitchel and Hepworth 1904: 201).

1. COLOUR INCREASING INKS

R1:

مرکبی که بعد از نوشتن رنگ آن افزون شود مازو دو اونس، بقم دو اونس، سوماک دو انس، آب یک شیشه ونیم، بهم آمیخته و بجوشانند تا یک شیشه بماند، مصفا نموده، هراکسیس یک اونس بیامیزند و زهره گاو در آن ساییده در شیشه کرده، بجنبانند و دهن شیشه را محکم نموده، در موقع حاجت بکار برند.

‘Ink that increases in colour once written on paper: Mix and boil 2 ounces of gall (56.69 g), 2 ounces (56.69 g) of brazilwood/logwood (Baqam) 2 ounces of sumac (56.69 g) in 1 ½ bottle of water, until 1 bottle is left, then filter. Add and mix an ounce (28.34 g) of protoxide, then add some ground ox gall, pour in bottle, shake, and close the bottle tightly; use as needed’.

The underlined term reads “harāksis” which is most likely protoxide (of iron) as seen in the next recipe. The protoxide of a chemical element is the least oxygenated of all the compounds it can form when combined with oxygen. However, the use of the term protoxide is not recommended as an oxide even less rich in oxygen than the oxide classically described as protoxide can be found.

R2:

أيضا بقم چهار جزء، مازو یک جزء، آب دوازده جزء، سلفت اف پروتوکسائید اف ایرن یک جزء، اول هر سه را تا یک ساعت بجوشانند بعد بگذارند تا سرد شود و از پارچه بیرون نموده سلفت اف پروتوکسائید اف ایرن در او انداخته في الفور در شیشه کرده سر آن را گرفته بگذارند، وقتی حاجت بکار برند.

‘Another method: 4 parts brazilwood, 1 part gall nuts, 12 parts water, 1 part sulphate of protoxide of iron; boil the first three together for 1 hour, then allow to cool, and filter through cloth. Then add sulphate of iron protoxide; and pour the ink in a bottle and close the lid immediately. Use as needed’.

Both these appear to be versions of iron-gall ink with additional ingredients often seen in European recipes.

1. (xi) PRINTING INKS:

R1:

نوع دیگر- جوهر چوب بقم سرخ ۳۰ گرین، گرشل سو ۷۱ گرین، آب خالص نیم اونس بهم آمیخته آن قدر بجوشانند که همه اجزا بهم گداخته شود پس گلسرین ۳۰ گرین کرومت آف پطاس یک گرین در آب گداخته، چهار گرین صمغ عربی نرم ساییده در آن بیامیزند.

‘Another method: Boil 30 grains (1.94 g) of sappanwood (Baqam-e Sorḵ) extract, 71 grains (4.6 g) of Garšalsu? in half ounce (14.17 g) of water and allow to mix well. Then add 30 grains (1.94 g) of glycerine and 1 grain (0.06 g) chromate of potash to the mixture, followed by 4 grains (0.25 g) powdered gum Arabic, and mix well.’

The underlined term in the recipe reads “Garšalsu” which the author could not decipher.

R2:

و نوع دیگر، مازو چهار اونس و نیم قرنفل را جوکوب کرده یک درم غرابه ای که گنجایش پنجاه اونس آب داشته باشد بگیرند این اجزا را با چهل اونس آب سرد در آن بریزند و تا دو هفته بگذارند و هر روز ساعتی او را حرکت دهند که ته نشین نگردد، و بعد غرابة دیگر آورده بر دهن او کاغذی که به جهت صافی مخصوص و معروف است نهاده و آن را در آن ریخته صاف کنند و هرقدر جرم آن باشد در پارچه بیفشارند و صاف کرده و در غرابه ریزند. پس یک اونس ونیم سلفت اف ایرن در آب گداخته از صافی مذکور صاف نموده در آن بیامیزند و تیزاب گوگرد خالص در پیمانه آبگینه که برای وزن عرقیات در دواخانه ها می باشد ۳۵ من نیموزن نموده در آن بیامیزند و زود بجنبانند تا اجزا مخلوط شود. ازین مرکب رنگ آسمانی نوشته می شود. اگر خواهند که برای فرود آمدن کا پی این مرکب کارآمد شود چهار اونس و نیم مازو، و از دوایی که در آغاز نسخه مرقوم است پنج اونس و نیم بگیرند و باید که از آب مقطر باشد یا از آب باران، این مداد ساخته شود.

‘And another method: 4.5 ounces (127.57 g) of gall nuts and 1 deram (15 g) powdered clove are placed in a 50-ounce container, mixed, and 40 ounces (1.13 kg) of cold water is added, and is left for 2 weeks while every day, it needs to be mixed for 1 hour to prevent precipitation. Now bring another container, and using special filter paper, filter the content of the first container into the second. Next, 2.5 ounces (70.87 g) sulphate of iron is added to water and filtered, and half of 35 mann (52.5 kg) pure acid of sulphur is added after, and immediately shaken to mix all the constituents well. This will create sky blue writing ink. And for use in copy print, use 5.5 ounces (155.92 g) of what was mentioned in the beginning of the treatise (sulphuric acid) and remember that the water must be distilled or rainwater.’

1. BAKED INKS FOR SEALS

R1:

مرکب پخته - برای ثبت نمودن مهر که از اسیت آب رنگش متغير نشود که بیل مسحوق و بیست و پنج جزء ایل اف لوندرد و صد جزء دوده، نیل یک جزء با هم گداخته و آمیخته بکار برند.

Baked Ink: For protecting seals that won’t get affected by water, boil and mix pounded Indian bael with 25 parts oil of lavender, 100 parts of soot, and 1 part indigo.

R2:

نوع دیگر، اسفالیم یک جزء و ربع جزء دوده بهم مخلوط نموده مصفا نمایند، روغن السی که برای مطابع درست شده باشد یک جزء و نیم در آن بیامیزند و بجوشانند به طوری که مثل شربت شکر شود اسپرت آف ترین تائين چهار جزء در او بیامیزند و اگر قدری کمتر پتائین در آن آمیزند بهتر است و بکار برند.

‘Another method: mix 1 part asphaltum, and ¼ parts of soot, add a part and a half of linseed (alsi) oil used in medicine, and boil until syrup like. 4 parts spirit of turpentine is added and if a bit less of turpentine is added, it shall be better.’

Alsi is another name for linseed or flaxseed in Hindi and Urdu (Platts 1997).

A similar recipe is given by Beasley (1895: 361) under the name Hauseman’s ink but the recipe does not mention using linseed oil.

1. (xiii) SPECIAL (MAḴṢUṢ) INK FOR TEXTILES

R1:

مرکب مخصوص - برای نشان نمودن بر پارچه جوئین آف سیلور نیم شیشه و صمغ عربی نیم اونس بهم آمیخته بکار برند.

‘Special ink for writing on textile: Mix half a glass container of silver chains and half ounce of gum Arabic and use as desired.’

The underlined term reads “ja‘in āf sīlver” which is most likely “chain of silver”.

R2:

أيضا ناتریت اف سیلور یک جزء، آب خالص شش جزء، صمغ عربی یک جزء و نیم بهم آمیخته بگدازند، اگر غلیظ شود آب گرم اضافه نمایند.

‘Another method: Mix and bray a part silver nitrate with 6 parts pure water and one and half parts of gum Arabic; if it is too viscous, add some warm water.’

Mitchel and Hepworth (1904: 200) give a recipe known as silver chloride marking ink, with similar ingredients but mention the addition of some indigo carmine.

4 Conclusion

29 recipes were divided into 13 categories based on the colour, type, and name given in the treatise and subsequently translated from Persian to English: 4 recipes on red inks, 5 recipes on blue inks, 4 recipes on green inks, 1 recipe each on gold inks, Indian inks, Chinese inks, and gardener’s inks, and finally, 2 recipes each on English inks, European inks, colour increasing inks, printing inks, baked inks (for seals), and special inks (for textiles).

Throughout the research, it was discovered that the books “The Druggist’s General Receipt Book” by Beasley (1895), “Forty Centuries of Inks” by Carvalho (1904), and “Inks: Their Manufacture and Composition” by Mitchel and Hepworth (1904) contain the same or similar recipes to some of the ones given by Ḥosseini (19th C) which means that they all could have obtained these recipes from the same sources.

It should be noted that not all the information could be translated due to Ḥosseini using English names of ingredients written in Persian. For example, recipe R1 from the printing inks category contains an ingredient written as “Garšalsu” in Persian which could not be deciphered. In some instances, the author had to figure the closest word that sounded like what was written which would also be logical in the context of the recipe. For example, the word that reads “chā‘is blu” in recipe R2 of blue inks or what reads as “kalsenā‘id” in the R2 recipe of green inks, which the author concluded as “Chinese blue” and “calcinated” respectively. Most of the text however could be deciphered with the additional aid of Ḥosseini’s list of terms at the end of the manuscript; albeit not all terminology was given. A list of ingredients and their Persian transliteration is given in Table 4.