3D and 4D printing for optics and metaphotonics

2.1 3D printing with embedded functional nanoparticles

3D printing requires novel materials to enhance the functionalities of printed structures. However, the available materials for 3D printing are limited, because of the requirements for printing; e.g. materials with appropriate shear stress are needed to maintain the shape during DIW, and transparent materials are needed for photopolymerization in SLA. In this regard, mixing functional nanoparticles with conventional 3D printing materials can be a viable option to enhance the optical functionalities of printed structures. There have been several reports on 3D printing with embedded functional nanoparticles, such as plasmonic metal nanoparticles, quantum dots (QDs), and luminescent dye molecules.

Figure 2 shows several examples of functional structures with selective light absorption or emission. Figure 2A–C show metal nanoparticles with different sizes [22]. Silver nanoprisms exhibit higher plasmonic sensitivity than spherical nanoparticles (Figure 2A) and have advantages for sensing and filtering applications. The nanoprism absorption peak is very sensitive to their size (15–80 nm) and covers almost the whole visible region. Therefore, silver nanoprisms exhibit various colors depending on their size (Figure 2B and C). These nanoprisms were mixed with conventional printing materials [Pluronic F-127 and poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA)] to create 3D-printed colored structures with discrete color grading (Figure 2D) and continuous color grading (Figure 2E). By controlling the syringe pressure, different nanoparticle distributions (either discrete or continuous) were obtained via 3D printing.

Figure 2:

3D printing with functional nanomaterials.

(A) TEM images of different sizes (15, 39, 58, 79 nm) of silver nanoprisms. (B) Photograph of Pluronic F-127 plasmonic inks with different sizes of silver nanoprisms. (C) Absorbance spectra (Inset shows the printed inks, scale bar: 5 mm). (D) Photograph of a discretely functionally graded 3D-printed plasmonic cube. (E) Photograph of a continuously functionally graded 3D printed plasmonic cube (scale bars: 5 mm). Adapted from Ref. [22]. Copyright (2017) John Wiley & Sons. (F) Schematic showing the QD-LED components printed on a curved surface. (G) Graph of current density vs. voltage of the 3D-printed QD-LED on a contact lens. The inset exhibits the electroluminescence from the 3D-printed QD-LED (scale bar: 1 mm). Reprinted from Ref. [23]. Copyright (2014) ACS Publications. (H) DLP printed complicated vases under the UV light illumination, which show luminescent red, green, and blue colors. (I) Photograph of the different luminescent color resins by blending. Reprinted from Ref. [24]. Copyright (2017) John Wiley & Sons.

Semiconductor QDs can emit light at different wavelengths (i.e. different colors), because of the size-dependent quantum confinement effect. Figure 2F shows a fully 3D-printed QD light-emitting diode (QD-LED) on a contact lens [23]. The QD emission layer was printed via DIW together with multiple other layers. A 3D-printed orange-red QD-LED on a non-flat contact lens exhibited good electrical characteristics (Figure 2G). Because 3D printing can be performed on curved surfaces as well as flat planes, 3D-printed QD-LEDs are promising for many novel applications. Luminescent dyes were also employed for 3D printing [24]. Figure 2H shows 3D-printed structures under UV lamp illumination. These 3D structures were printed with embedded luminescent dyes: Rhodamine B (red color), Solvent Yellow 98 (green color), and BBOT (blue color). Complex luminescent structures were printed with DLP using luminescent photopolymer resins. Various colors were obtained by blending two or more resins (Figure 2I).

2.2 Conductive filaments and inks for microwave antennas and components

Conductors are very effective for generating and confining electromagnetic waves and thus are essential for many microwave antennas and components. However, the conventional fabrication methods for microwave components often involve multiple processing steps (such as metal deposition, etching, and micromachining), as well as post-integration. 3D printing of conductive materials can be a viable alternative; conductive composite filaments and inks that include carbon materials (graphite, carbon black, etc. [25]) or metal particles as fillers in a polymer matrix can provide sufficient conductivity for many practical applications. In particular, 3D printing of such composite materials is promising for lightweight, flexible microwave components. Additionally, for enhancing the design flexibility or functionality, it is possible to control or gradually vary the dielectric permittivity by using several filaments together or dynamically mixing inks. Moreover, 3D printing can allow the direct printing of complex structures without micromachining.

Figure 3 shows the several examples of 3D-printed microwave antennas and components. Figure 3A shows a flexible, lightweight bowtie antenna [26]. It was 3D-printed using conductive acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) as an antenna material (black part in the figure) and PLA as a substrate (red part in the figure). Then, the printed antenna was attached to an SMA connector using conductive glue. The bowtie antenna exhibited a good return loss in the frequency range of 6.8–8.7 GHz (corresponding to a relative bandwidth of 24%) (Figure 3B). Additionally, using conductive filaments that included copper particles, 3D printing of Mills cross cavity antennas was demonstrated for computational microwave imaging [27]. Figure 3C shows the receiving (left) and transmitting (right) cavities. In the antenna, slot-shaped unit cells have rectangular slots for single-polarization imaging with varying lengths for the flattening of the radiation response in the K-band region. Using information collected from antennas with swept frequency, original images were reconstructed via computational imaging algorithms (Figure 3D and E).

Figure 3:

Conductive materials for microwave applications.

(A) Photograph of a 3D-printed antenna. (B) Reflection coefficient spectrum of the 3D-printed antenna. Reprinted from Ref. [26]. Copyright (2015) IEEE. (C) Picture of 3D-printed Mills-Cross cavity antennas. The left side is a receiving cavity and the right one is a transmitting cavity. (D) Synthesized composite apertures for imaging of a point-scatter array. (E) Reconstructed image of the array by the computational imaging algorithm. Reprinted from Ref. [27]. Copyright (2017) IEEE. (F) 3D printing of conductive scaffolds using a CNT/PLA solvent. (G) Graph of averaged EMI SE of the solid (i.e. filled) and scaffold patterns with different CNT loadings in the X-band range. Reprinted from Ref. [28]. Copyright (2017) Elsevier.

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding was demonstrated using conductive inks, where carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were mixed with a PLA matrix and dissolved in a dichloromethane (DCM) solvent [28]. Conductive patterns were 3D-printed using a micronozzle and then solidified rapidly via the volatile DCM solvent (Figure 3F). This method was denoted as solvent-cast 3D printing. In contrast to 3D printing of solid filaments with high filler contents, it was free from clogging in the nozzle, because of the low viscosity of the conductive inks dissolved in the solvent. With the increasing CNT content, the EMI shielding effectiveness (SE) increased up to 30 dB (corresponding to 0.1% transmission) for a patterned scaffold with an inter-filament spacing of 0.7 mm (Figure 3G). Additionally, this EMI shielding pattern maintained visible-region transparency of >40%. Thus, conductive-ink patterns can provide effective shielding of microwave signals while maintaining substantial transparency to the human eye.

2.3 Smart materials for 4D printing

3D printing of smart materials that are responsive to external stimuli (such as heat, moisture, electric/magnetic fields, and pH) is called 4D printing (the fourth dimension is time). In this case, 3D-printed structures are no longer static; rather, their shapes or functionalities can transform over time (Figure 4A). More information regarding general 4D printing research can be found in recent reviews [34], [35], [36], [37]. In this section, we have provided more details on stimuli-responsive, smart materials that have been widely employed for 4D-printing studies: SMPs, hydrogels, and liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs).

Figure 4:

4D printing with smart materials.

(A) 4D-printed structure that transforms its shape from a 1D line to a 3D cube. Adapted from Ref. [14]. Copyright (2014) John Wiley & Sons. (B) The shape memory process of the cubic frame made of carbon black doped polyurethane under light illumination of 87 mW/cm². Adapted from Ref. [29]. Copyright (2017) John Wiley & Sons. Copyright (2016) Nature Publishing group. (C) 3D-printed structure that is mimicking the insect. The deformation behavior of the structure in a 30°C water is shown over time. The image on the lower right corner is the fully recovered structure in the 60°C water. Adapted from Ref. [16]. (D) Photographs of the shape memory assisted self-healing effect. Inserted pictures are the optical microscope images with a scale bar of 1 mm. Adapted from Ref. [30]. Copyright (2018) ACS Publications. (E) Hydrogel based 4D-printed structure (scale bar: 1 cm). Adapted from Ref. [31]. Copyright (2017) John Wiley & Sons. (F) Sequential deformation of a multi-material LCE structure. With molecular engineering, different actuation temperatures were realized (scale bar: 5 mm). Adapted from Ref. [32]. Copyright (2019) John Wiley & Sons. (G) 4D-printed structure that combined LCE with PDMS for adaptive optics. The pictures show the grid observed at different temperatures. Adapted from Ref. [33]. Copyright (2018) John Wiley & Sons.

The 4D printing of SMPs involves 3D printing of an original shape, followed by thermomechanical programming. During thermomechanical programming, the printed SMP structure is deformed into a temporary shape above the glass-transition temperature T_g and then cooled back to room temperature to fix the temporary shape. When it is heated again above the T_g, the original permanent shape is recovered. SMPs can be easily used in conventional 3D printing methods, such as FDM and PolyJet. Thermoplastic SMPs such as PLA [38], [39] and thermoplastic polyurethane [29], [40], [41] can be used in FDM 3D printing. For example, Yang et al. fabricated photoresponsive 3D-printed structures using polyurethane filaments that included carbon black [29] (Figure 4B). Owing to the high efficiency of the photothermal conversion of carbon black, the programmed structures returned to their original shapes under light illumination (even under sunlight). In the PolyJet method, UV-curable SMPs [13], [16], [42] such as photocurable polyurethane can be used. For example, Wu et al. fabricated multi-shape active composites with photocurable polyurethane-based SMPs [16] (Figure 4C). By combining several SMPs with different T_g values and rubber-like printing materials, a 4D-printed structure was demonstrated that had different shapes at different temperatures. SMPs have been also used in other 3D-printing methods. Zarek et al. created SMP structures for flexible electronic devices using SLA [43]. Conductive ink printing was combined with SMP structures to define electrical contacts. With electrical Joule heating, an electrical conduction path was formed via the shape-memory function, and an LED was turned on. Kuang et al. fabricated highly stretchable, self-healing SMP structures using UV-assisted DIW [30] (Figure 4D). Semi-interpenetrating polymer network elastomers containing shape-memory polyurethane were used. With the assistance of the shape-memory effect, a relatively large cracked surface was healed at an elevated temperature via entangled polymer chains.

Many 4D-printing studies have been conducted on the swelling feature of hydrogels. For example, Raviv et al. printed shape-changing 2D sheets consisting of a rigid plastic material and a water-swellable material [44]. Those materials were combined into a bilayer hinge and, when immersed in water, the overall structure was bent. The water-swellable material consisted of vinyl caprolactam, polyethylene, epoxy diacrylate oligomer, and curing agents. When immersed in water, the swellable material formed a hydrogel. Using similar materials, including hydroxyethyl acrylate, hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), and potassium 3-sulfopropylmethacrylate, Huang et al. demonstrated 3D-printed, programmable hydrogel structures [31] (Figure 4E). By illuminating certain patterns with different exposure times, they tuned the immersed state of structure. Another widely used hydrogel material is poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAM) [45], [46], which exhibits a temperature-dependent water swelling characteristic. It loses some water above the critical temperature, although it normally swells in water. Naficy et al. fabricated reversible shape-morphing structures using a printed bilayer structure of pNIPAM and pHEMA [47]. When the structure was immersed in water at 20°C, the swelling ratio of the pNIPAM was larger than that of the pHEMA, and the laminated structure was bent toward the pHEMA face. However, when the temperature increased to 60°C, the pNIPAM was dehydrated, and the swelling ratios of the two materials were reversed. Therefore, the bilayer was bent to the pNIPAM face. Additionally, biomimetic 4D printing was demonstrated using hydrogels that contained cellulose fibrils [48]. The local orientations of the fibrils were controlled during the printing to generate different swelling ratios in different parts, which led to various 3D shape changes.

LCEs have two states; nematic and isotropic states. At low temperatures, LCE molecules arrange into a linear shape. Above the transition temperature, the arrangement of the molecules breaks down, and LCEs transform into the isotropic, randomly organized state. Consequently, the overall size of the structure decreases. For example, thermo-responsive 4D printing has been conducted using LCEs. The typical materials used include 1,4-bis-[4-(3-acryloyloxypropyloxy) benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene (RM257) and 1,4-bis-[4-(6-acryloyloxhexyloxy) benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene (RM82). Yuan et al. fabricated a sequential folding box combining silver ink printing and elastomer/LCE printing and realized a laminated actuator structure [49]. With an applied electric bias, the temperature of the laminated actuator increased, because of Joule heating of the silver ink pattern. The ordinary elastomer material did not exhibit a significant change in length, whereas the LCE exhibited a significant decrease in length. Therefore, the laminated structure was bent to the LCE surface. Saed et al. fabricated another elastomer actuator using RM257 and RM82 [32] (Figure 4F). They molecularly engineered LCEs with two different monomers, different spacer polymers, and crosslinkers. The modulus, transition temperature, and viscosity of the LCEs were tuned. With different transition-temperature conditions, an actuator holding three different shapes in different temperature regimes was demonstrated. Ambulo et al. controlled the molecular direction of LCEs by controlling the DIW path [50]. With programming of the printing path, a printed flat structure morphed into a 3D structure when heated. Kotikian et al. 3D-printed RM82 LCEs using DIW at a high operating temperature [51]. By optimizing the printing speed and temperature, an LCE actuator was demonstrated. Above the transition temperature, the transition temperature, the length of LCE actuator decreased by 40% along the organized axis. This transformation was reversible over 100 cycles of temperature variation. Additionally, programmable shape-morphing structures that transform from 2D to 3D or from one 3D structure to another 3D structure have been demonstrated by controlling the printing path. López-Valdeolivas et al. also fabricated a thermo-responsive lens for adaptive optics combining RM82 with optically transparent polydimethylsiloxane [33] (Figure 4G).

3.1 3D printing for optical and optoelectronic components

3D printing can be ideal for customized, complex optical components. For example, opto-mechanical components [52], photonic crystal fibers and waveguides [53], gratings, and lenses [54], [55] have been fabricated. 3D printing has special advantages for fabricating advanced optical components that are difficult to realize using conventional methods. Several optical elements can be fabricated and integrated together without an additional assembling process. Moreover, various freeform optical components can be realized, [56], [57], [58], [59], [60] because freeform optics often requires complex geometries that cannot be achieved with conventional symmetric shapes, 3D printing of freeform integrated optical components is attracting increasing attention in a variety of optical fields [61], [62]. For example, it could be important for lightweight, head-mounted displays for virtual reality and augmented reality [63], [64].

SLA—one of the common 3D printing methods—was invented by C. Hull in 1986 [65]. In SLA, a focused UV laser beam is applied to liquid photopolymers that are composed of monomers and oligomers and photo-initiators triggering polymerization [66], [67], [68], [69], [70]. After one layer is solidified by the laser beam, the same process is repeated for the subsequent layers. Recently, a parabolic mirror with nanometer-scale surface roughness (approximately 3 nm) was fabricated using SLA (Figure 5A) [71]. Its focused beam profile was almost identical to the beam from a mirror fabricated via conventional diamond milling [77]. Optical parts were printed using SLA and a wax printer then, a polymer mixture gel composed of methacrylates, acrylates, and urethane-based polymers was coated and UV-cured. The SLA 3D printing of transparent fused silica glass components at resolutions of a few tens of micrometers was also demonstrated recently [78]. The printed fused silica glass had the optical transparency of commercial fused silica glass and also had a smooth surface with a roughness of a few nanometers. Additionally, 3D printing of an optically clear ballistic gel has been considered for soft and stretchable optical components [79]. Although a smooth surface with a roughness of a few nanometers was achieved, it is still difficult to construct a nanometer-scale unit voxel using SLA.

Figure 5:

3D printing for optical and optoelectronic components.

(A) 3D-printed parabolic mirror after smoothing and aluminum deposition. Adapted from Ref. [71]. Copyright (2018) Nature Publishing Group. (B) Left: Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a sub-micrometer optical element printed onto a single-mode fiber (scale bars: 25μm). Right: Measured topography using optical interferometry of a spherical lens with a lens thickness of 250 μm, a radius of curvature 85.77 μm. Adapted from Ref. [72]. Copyright (2016) Nature Publishing Group. (C) Left: Four different FOV compound lenses on the same CMOS image sensor and the SEM image of a 3D-printed doublet lens. Right: Comparison of simulation and measurement images through a single compound lens with FOV of only a 70° (left), and with 20°, 40°, 60°, 70° (right). Adapted from Ref. [73]. Copyright (2017) AAAS. (D) Illustration explaining optical interconnection between two ZnO nanorods (Z1, Z2) through a polystyrene nanowire (P1). Adapted from Ref. [88]. Copyright (2016) John Wiley & Sons. (E) Left: Schematic view of the 3D printing system. The zoom-in part represents a 3D-printing method inspired by the light guide of an optical fiber. Right: Helical structure where light is guided and transmitted. Adapted from Ref. [75]. Copyright (2019) John Wiley & Sons. (F) Left: Schematic of the structure of the photodetector. Center: Photograph of the concentric photodetector array printed onto the inner surface of a hemispherical glass dome. Right: I-V characteristics of the photodetector onto the hemispherical glass dome. Adapted from Ref. [76]. Copyright (2018) John Wiley & Sons.

DLW based on multi-photon absorption polymerization makes it possible to obtain a higher resolution [80]. High-power femtosecond laser pulses can increase the nonlinear multi-photon (usually two-photon) absorption and trigger the solidification of a small focal volume. Negative photoresists are typically used, and the parts exposed to laser remain after development. Many optical devices have been demonstrated using DLW, including waveguides [81], objective lenses [82], axicons [83], and optical sensors [84]. S. Maruo and S. Kawata applied two-photon absorption polymerization to the fabrication of a microscale structure for the first time [85]. A femtosecond laser beam was focused onto a photosensitive polymer, and crosslinking in the polymer occurred in the region of laser spot, because crosslinking occurs when the exposed dose of the beam exceeds polymerization threshold, only the very center of focused beam can overcome the polymerization threshold. This leads to polymerization in a subwavelength region. By scanning the laser focusing spot, it was possible to fabricate arbitrary 3D structures on the subwavelength scale [74], [86]. More recently, Gissibl et al. demonstrated sub-micrometer optical elements printed onto a single-mode fiber (Figure 5B) [72]. Optical elements such as spherical lenses, toric lenses, and freeform lenses with donut-shaped and top-hat-shaped intensity distributions were also demonstrated. The same group demonstrated ultracompact compound multi-lens objectives with micro- and nano-optical elements [87]. Furthermore, Thiele et al. directly printed a freeform lens on a complementary metal–oxide semiconductor image-sensor chip [73]. Four doublet objectives with different focal lengths and a common focal plane were printed together, with a footprint smaller than 300 μm×300 μm. A foveated imaging system with a field-of-view (FOV) up to 70° was achieved (Figure 5C). When lenses with FOVs of 20°, 40°, 60°, and 70° were combined, the foveated image appeared even clearer.

3D printing has been also used to fabricate optical waveguides and optoelectronic devices. Using a stretched solution meniscus, Pyo et al. performed 3D printing of polystyrene nanowaveguides as well as a multiplexer and a splitter directly attached to a nanophotonic source [88]. When a ZnO nanorod (Z1) was excited by laser, its photoluminescence was successfully delivered to another nanorod (Z2) through the nanowaveguide (P1) (Figure 5D). They also fabricated an optical interconnect that delivered optical power over a gap (or a step) and functioned even under stretching. Lim et al. used photocurable hydrogels not only as a waveguide, but also as a source path simultaneously (Figure 5E) [75]. Light transmitted through the printed waveguide was used to polymerize the next droplet of the hydrogel precursor. This new 3D printing method employed the total internal reflection at the core (hydrogel)–cladding (air) interface. Smooth surfaces were printed without supports, and various freestanding overhanging and helical 3D structures were realized. Figure 5F shows polymer photodetectors 3D-printed via solution extrusion [76]. A photodetector was printed layer-by-layer, and the printed device was as smooth as spin-coated ones. The printed device exhibited an external quantum efficiency of 25.3% at –1 V and a rectification ratio of ~10⁵ (ratio of forward to reverse diode current in the dark at ±1 V), which are comparable to those of microfabricated organic photodetectors. Photodetectors were also printed onto a curved surface (inner surface of hemisphere glass) and exhibited no deterioration in photodetection due to bending.

3.2 3D printing for optical metamaterials

DLW based on two-photon absorption polymerization can allow a patterning resolution of <100 nm and has been used to fabricate various nanophotonic structures and optical metamaterials, such as log-pile photonic crystals [89], spiral photonic crystals, and 3D split-ring metamaterials [90]. Figure 6A and B show periodically arranged standing U-shaped resonators (SUSRs) that exhibit perfect absorption or reflection depending on the incidence polarization [91]. After two-photon absorption polymerization patterning, gold-layer coating via magnetic sputtering was performed. The fabricated 3D SUSRs exhibited perfect absorption for x-polarized light. Additionally, they exhibited perfect reflection for y-polarization. Figure 6C and D show the simulated and measured spectra. 94% absorption was experimentally achieved at the mid-infrared (IR) frequency of 1200 cm⁻¹. The fabricated structure also exhibited sufficient thermal stability, even though it was composed of polymer materials. There was no significant change of the resonant absorption peak up to 100°C. At 200°C, the gold layer on top of the photoresist began to soften, and the absorption value decreased slightly to 92%. However, above 350°C, the overall SUSR structure began to collapse.

Figure 6:

3D printing for optical metamaterial.

(A) Schematic of the standing U-shape resonator with L_x=4 μm, L_y=2 μm, a=2 μm, h=2 μm, d=0.7 μm, and w=0.3 μm. (B) FESEM micrographs of the SUSRs with h=2 μm (scale bar: 2 μm). (C) Simulation result of the SUSRs with the same parameter of Figure 3B. (D) Measured spectra of the SUSRs with h=2 μm. Adapted from Ref. [91]. Copyright (2013) APS. (E) SEM images of reference and cloak samples. The blue color indicates polymers and the yellow one indicates a sputtered gold film (scale bar, 10 μm). (F) Measured images of reference (top) and cloak (bottom) samples at different wavelengths. Adapted from Ref. [92]. Copyright (2011) OSA Publishing.

As another example, DLW was used to fabricate a 3D carpet invisibility cloak operating in the near-IR range [93]. By exploiting transformation optics (TO), a gradual variation of the refractive index in a woodpile structure was realized by varying the fill factor. The same group reduced the feature size of the patterned polymer by incorporating an additional depletion laser together with a two-photon absorption exciting laser. In this way, they reduced the spacing between beams in the woodpile structure from 800 to 350 nm and realized a polarization-independent 3D carpet invisibility cloak in the visible range [92]. The structure in the upper part of Figure 6E is a reference that does not provide cloaking, whereas that in the lower part provides cloaking. The blue part is the woodpile of the polymer structure, and the yellow indicates the sputtered 100-nm-thick gold film. Figure 6F shows a microscope image of the cloaking structure. When inspected from the glass-substrate side, the reference sample exhibited dark stripes. However, it was impossible to observe dark stripes in the cloaking structure. Cloaking occurred for wavelengths larger than ~700 nm, and it persisted up to a longer wavelength (3 μm) as long as the woodpile polymer remained transparent. The measurement results were well explained by ray-tracing simulations.

3.3 3D printing for terahertz components

The resolution of common 3D printing methods (such as FDM and PolyJet) can reach a few tens of micrometers thus, THz components can be fabricated using 3D printing [94]. For example, Gospodaric et al. fabricated dielectric phase plates for THz beam shaping (Figure 7A and B) [95]. Proper phase modulation profiles were calculated using the Gerchberg–Saxton iterative algorithm, and a Gaussian beam was transformed into arbitrary images via the phase plates. Polylactic acid (PLA) was printed with proper coordinates and proper thicknesses to realize the required phase modulation. Additionally, a THz polarizer was fabricated using commercial conductive PLA filaments, where carbon black was mixed in a PLA matrix (Figure 7C and D) [96]. The THz polarizer was 3 cm in diameter and consisted of 0.3-mm-wide stripes that were separated by 0.3-mm air gaps (fill factor 50%). The response of the printed THz polarizer was investigated via simulations and measurements. At 0.3 THz, TM-polarized waves could pass through the printed polarizer, while TE-polarized waves were attenuated strongly at a distance no longer than 2 mm. However, this polarization response was reversed at higher frequencies above 0.5 THz. As shown in Figure 7D, TE-polarized waves passed through the structure at 2.5 THz, but TM-polarized waves were attenuated.

Figure 7:

3D printing for THz applications.

(A) Measured intensity profiles of a cross and a university logo of the optical field by an incidence of THz wave. (B) Schematic of the optical setup for intensity profile measurements. Adapted from Ref. [95]. Copyright (2018) AIP publishing. (C) Photograph of a 3D-printed polarizer. (D) Numerical simulation results for the 4 mm propagation length. Light is incident along the y-axis (from the top). The dark green region is a conductive PLA part, while the light green region is air. (E) Transmission amplitude of the THz beam measured after passing through 4 mm polarizer. The dashed lines are numerical predictions for the TE and TM mode. Adapted from Ref. [96]. Copyright (2019) OSA Publishing.

3.4 3D printing for microwave metamaterials and transformation optics

3D printing is advantageous for metamaterial fabrication, because metamaterials often require sophisticated structures that are difficult to fabricate via traditional methods. In particular, 3D printing is suitable for microwave metamaterials, where the wavelengths are on the order of centimeters. There have been various studies on dielectric metamaterials and TO, because dielectric materials are commonly used in 3D printing. For example, polycarbonate (with a dielectric constant of 2.57) was used to manufacture uniaxial anisotropic metamaterials via FDM 3D printing [97]. Polymer composites that include microsized ceramic powders in a polymer matrix have also been investigated for achieving a high permittivity. Figure 8A shows two 3D diamond-like lattices with low (right) and high (left) permittivity values [98]. While the low-permittivity lattice contains only ABS, the high-permittivity one consists of ABS and BaTiO₃ microparticles, and its dielectric constant was increased to 8.72 at 14 GHz for 70 wt% BaTiO₃ [104]. Complex geometries and the desired spatial distribution of the dielectric properties can be achieved using a dual-nozzle printing head. Figure 8B presents an example; the alternating low- and high-permittivity areas consist of ABS and ABS/BaTiO₃ composites, respectively. As shown, layered slabs, cubes, and even checkerboard structures were well demonstrated, with clear boundaries and alignments. A one-dimensional (1D) layered slab comprising alternating photonic structures was experimentally confirmed to have anisotropic dielectric permittivity and support Mie-type resonances in the microwave frequency range [105].

Figure 8:

3D printing for microwave metamaterials and transformation optics.

(A) Diamond-like lattice composed of ABS only (right) and ABS+BaTiO₃ composite (left). (B) Samples composed of alternating areas of ABS and ABS+BaTiO₃ that are printed using a dual-extrusion nozzle. (C) Diamond-like lattice made of ABS with a 10 vol% NiZn ferrite filament. Adapted from Ref. [98]. Copyright (2015) The Royal Society Publishing. (D) PLA-SRRs sample after selective electroless plating on an ABS structure (inset: anti-resonant dispersion for bi-anisotropy). Adapted from Ref. [99]. Copyright (2017) AIP Publishing. (E) Left: Schematic of a GRIN lens with low (blue) and high (white) relative permittivity regions and photograph of the short horn with 3D-printed GRIN lens. Right: Experimental radiation pattern of the GRIN lens. Adapted from Ref. [100]. Copyright (2016) John Wiley & Sons (F) Photograph of a 3D-printed planar Luneberg lens. Adapted from Ref. [101]. Copyright (2018) ACS Publications. (G) 3D-printed Luneburg lens antenna (inset: schematic of the cubic-unit cell). Adapted from Ref. [102]. Copyright (2014) IEEE. (H) Photograph of a 3D-printed beam steering lens and the measured electric field distribution for the lens antenna. Adapted from Ref. [103]. Copyright (2016) IOP Publishing.

Mixing of different materials can result in diverse material properties. Figure 8C shows the same diamond-like lattice as Figure 8A, but it is made of ABS/NiZn ferrite composites [98], [106]. However, compared with pure dielectric composites, magnetic composites with a high permeability have attracted less research attention, as magnetic particles tend to agglomerate, and their electric and magnetic responses are reduced. In contrast, highly conductive filaments consisting of metal particles and polymers have already entered the commercial market for desktop 3D printers; for example, such a conductive filament allowed the design of a microwave metamaterial with a high permittivity of 14 at approximately 1 GHz [107]. On the other hand, 3D-printed dielectric structures were also used as templates for surface metallization [99], [108], [109]. Because vacuum evaporation and sputtering often encounter difficulties for full metallization onto highly complex 3D structures, a wet chemical process is advantageous for obtaining a uniform coating without shaded areas. For example, selective electroless plating was used to demonstrate self-standing split-ring resonators that exhibited a bi-anisotropic response (Figure 8D).

Dual-extrusion 3D printers can readily allow alternating variations in permittivity, which are often required for TO. The left panel of Figure 8E presents a gradient refractive index (GRIN) lens composed of sub-elements with varied effective local permittivity values [100]. The blue region corresponds to a relatively low permittivity ε_l (made of ABS), and the white corresponds to a high permittivity ε_h (made of ABS/SrTiO₃ composites). The effective local permittivity ε_N of the sub-elements consisting of blue and white layers can be determined as ε_N=fε_h+(1–f)ε_l, where f represents the relative volume fraction of the high-permittivity component. In the proposed GRIN lens, f decreased toward the end of the structure; consequently, ε_N also decreased. The 3D-printed GRIN lens produced a significantly directed far-field radiation pattern at an operating frequency range centered at 15 GHz [right panel of Figure 8E]. The fabrication of GRIN lenses can be achieved not only with an alternating permittivity, but also with a single dielectric material that includes voids of graded sizes. In this case, the permittivity of the voids corresponds to ε_l=1. The honeycomb structure shown in Figure 8F is one example [101]. It was fabricated via SLA and allowed a gradual change of ε_N. The photocurable resin circular lens was divided into 10 concentric rings and patterned with inverse Y-shaped structures. Another example is shown in Figure 8G; an elaborate 3D Luneburg lens was realized by varying the fill factor gradually from the center to the surface of the lens [102]. Accordingly, a gradual decrease in ε_N was achieved. Another example of 3D-printed TO components is the beam-steering lens shown in Figure 8H [103]. An all-dielectric microwave lens was fabricated via PolyJet 3D printing and included circular voids that increased in size toward the upper-right region. This structure allowed beam steering over a broad frequency range without resonance. Beam steering with an angle of 26° was demonstrated at 12 GHz.

3.5 Inverse-designed metastructures at microwave and optical frequencies

Inverse design is one of the computational methods for identifying the optimal geometry to obtain the desired output. Inverse design involves iterative calculations with given parameters, eventually arriving at the desired objective. Owing to its fast and automatic calculations, the inverse-design method has been used in optics to overcome the shortcomings of conventional methods and is gaining popularity [110], [111], [112], [113], [114], [115], [116], [117]. 3D printing can be an ideal solution for device fabrication as inverse design often requires complex geometries (or a complex permittivity distribution). Recently, Estakhri et al. suggested an inverse-designed metaphotonic platform (Figure 9A) to solve the general Fredholm integral equation of the second kind in an analog manner for wave propagation in metastructures [118]. Any arbitrary monochromatic wave g(u) is transferred to a metamaterial represented by a given integral operator with kernel K(u, v). The output of the operator is conveyed to the input side, and then the system obeys the source-free equation g(u)=∫abK(u, v)g(v)dv. Next, the input signal I_in(u) is inserted into the integral equation by exploiting a set of coupling elements along the waveguide, and many iterations of this process eventually approach the intended result. An experimental verification was performed at a microwave frequency using a 3D-printed metastructure (see the right panel in Figure 9A).

Figure 9:

Inverse-designed metastructures.

(A) Left: Sketch of a closed-loop network, consisting of a suitably designed kernel operator (metamaterial block), feedback mechanism, and in/out coupling elements to excite and probe the waves. The N waveguides realize the external feedback network. The direction of the wave flow is indicated by arrows. Right: Photograph of the constructed metamaterial. Adapted from Ref. [118]. Copyright (2019) AAAS. (B) Left: Schematic drawing and top-view photograph of the 3D-printed inverse-designed 30° polarization splitter. With parallel(vertical) electric-field polarization E_||(E_⊥), the input plane wave is bent to +30° (−30°). Right: Simulated (dashed line) and measured (circles) far-field power profiles for both parallel and perpendicular polarizations. Adapted from Ref. [119]. Copyright (2018) Nature Publishing Group. (C) Left: Scanning electron micrograph of the top view of the printed device. Right: Normalized experimental transmitted intensity of the fabricated sample as a function of diffraction angle for various input polarization angles. Adapted from Ref. [120]. Copyright (2019) John Wiley & Sons.

Callewaert et al. demonstrated a broadband, polarization-dependent beam splitter based on inverse-designed non-resonant structures [119]. An optimized binary structure was obtained via inverse design, and the polystyrene/air binary structure was fabricated via FDM 3D printing (Figure 9B). The inverse-designed beam splitter had several merits: high transmission efficiency (>60%), broadband response (∆λ/λ>25%), and the use of a dielectric-based thin structure (≤2λ). The beam splitter worked at approximately 30 GHz and was a few centimeters in size. More recently, the same group extended this beam-splitter design to the near-IR range [120]. An inverse-designed polarization beam splitter was realized via DLW (Figure 9C). It exhibited diffraction angles of ~25° at 1.3 μm and ~30° at 1.55 μm in experiments, which agreed well with simulations.

3.6 4D printing of photoresponsive materials for active optical structures

Compared with other external stimuli (such as heat, moisture, and pH), light has unique advantages; it can enable structural changes remotely and can also enable local control with a high resolution in space and time. Various properties of light (intensity, polarization, wavelength, etc.) can be rapidly and precisely adjusted to control the material response. Therefore, 4D printing of photoresponsive materials is promising for the fabrication of various optical structures [121], [122], [123], [124]. Among the photoresponsive materials, azobenzene is the most widely studied. The isomerization state of azobenzene compounds transforms from trans to cis under illumination at certain wavelengths (mostly in the UV region) [125]. For example, azobenzene compounds were mixed with photopolymer liquid resins for SLA and used to fabricate a photoresponsive smart window (Figure 10A) [126]. The transmission spectra were measured with crossed polarizers. Without optical pumping, there was no transmission through the window. However, with pumping, optical anisotropy was induced, because of the trans–cis transformation of the azobenzene compounds. This led to the polarization rotation of the incident light, and the transmission through the window increased. After the pumping light was turned off, the azobenzene compounds transformed back into the trans state. Therefore, the transmission decreased. It was possible to modulate the transmitted beam with a frequency of 100 Hz (Figure 10B).

Figure 10:

4D printing of photoresponsive materials.

(A) Photograph of an optical window after polishing (scale bar: 1 mm). (B) The intensity value with the 532 nm pump laser on and off states. There is an abrupt intensity growth with the pump laser on and a decay of the intensity without the pump laser. The modulation of the transmitted beam was demonstrated up to 100 Hz. Adapted from Ref. [126]. Copyright (2019) SPIE. (C) A schematic of the light-tunable whispering gallery mode resonator. The pink color indicates the liquid crystal polymer region. (D) SEM images of the fabricated waveguide with whispering gallery mode resonators. Adapted from Ref. [127]. Copyright (2018) ACS Publications.

Additionally, azobenzene compounds can be combined with linearly oriented liquid crystals that have birefringence along the ordinary and extraordinary axes [128], [129], [130], [131]. For example, Nocentini et al. fabricated photoresponsive 3D photonic circuits with azobenzene compounds in liquid crystals [127]. DLW was used to fabricate an optical waveguide operating at approximately 1550 nm. Furthermore, a waveguide-coupled ring resonator was patterned to excite resonant optical modes (Figure 10C). To introduce photoresponsivity, an additional cylindrical structure made of azo-compound-doped liquid crystals was added to the ring resonator. Under green laser illumination, the resonance wavelength was redshifted, because of the change in the resonator size. In a modified structure, the refractive-index variation of the liquid crystals was induced, which led to the blueshift of the resonance. The resonance shift was affected by the laser power. As the illuminating power of the laser increased, the resonance shift increased. Other stimuli, such as temperature and pH changes, have also been employed to actively control photonic devices [132], [133], [134].

3.7 4D printing for stimuli-responsive microwave structures

4D printing combines smart materials with 3D printing and can thus realize smart materials with a complex geometry and fine details. Therefore, it is promising for the fabrication of various stimuli-responsive structures with highly enhanced functionalities. Recently, microwave Fano-resonant structures that exhibited sharp spectral resonances were demonstrated via 4D printing of SMPs [135]. The typical spatial resolution in 3D printing can reach tens of micrometers. Therefore, 4D printing is suitable for the fabrication of microwave active structures. Figure 11 shows the general idea. An SMP beam array was fabricated via FDM printing. After thermomechanical programming, the SMP lattice was randomized. This disordered lattice does not exhibit a sharp spectral resonance, whereas the ordered lattice can exhibit sharp Fano resonances. When heated above the glass-transition temperature, disordered lattices are transformed into an ordered lattice, significantly changing the microwave spectrum. This stimuli-responsive action occurs as a result of material properties and thus does not require an electric power supply. Thus, it can be used for creative applications, such as long-distance environmental monitoring via microwave detection. With various smart materials, 4D printing might provide a unique platform for active, reconfigurable microwave structures.

Figure 11:

Schematic of a stimuli-responsive SMP photonic structure.

The 3D-printed SMP lattice is randomized into a disordered one. The disordered lattice does not exhibit a sharp spectral resonance. But, when heated above the glass transition temperature, the disordered lattice is transformed into an ordered lattice, exhibiting a sharp Fano resonance. Reprinted from Ref. [135]. Copyright (2019) John Wiley & Sons.

In experiments, PLA was used as the SMP. PLA is a thermoplastic material that is suitable for FDM printing and has a clear shape-memory property. Figure 12A shows two pictures of the lattice sample used in experiments before and after heating. The deformed lattice recovered to the original, ordered lattice upon heating. To characterize the spectral response of the lattice structures precisely, three identical samples were prepared with different randomness (Figure 12B). Figure 12C shows the measured transmission spectra of these three lattices for transverse-electric (TE) polarization. The disordered lattice with large randomness exhibited essentially no resonance (blue curve), whereas that with smaller randomness exhibited a very broad resonance at 38–40 GHz. In the ordered lattice, a sharp Fano resonance was observed at approximately 36.7 and 39.1 GHz. Figure 12D compares the experimental and simulated transmission spectra for the ordered lattice in the cases of TE and transverse-magnetic (TM) polarization. Although both polarizations resulted in Fano resonances, the TM-polarization resonance was broader than the TE-polarized one. The effect of the degree of disorder on the Fano resonance was investigated using numerical simulations. Figure 13 shows how the Fano resonance spectrum and the field profile changed as the degree of disorder increased. As the degree of disorder increased, the sharp Fano resonance was blue-shifted, and the resonance was broadened and weakened. Additionally, the field profile of the guided resonance became more randomized. In the dielectric lattice structure, sharp Fano resonances occurred, because of guided resonances in the periodic, dielectric beams, which interfered with the slowly varying background Fabry–Perot resonance. Upon heating, a sharp spectral change occurred, because the Fano resonance in the ordered lattice structure was induced by a collective mode distributed over the whole lattice, not by localized resonances in individual beams.

Figure 12:

Spectra response of ordered and disordered lattices.

(A) Photographs of disordered and ordered SMP lattices. The disordered lattice returned to an ordered one in an open chamber (hot oven). (B) Photographs of SMP lattices with different degrees of disorder. The ordered lattice has Δ_disorder=0. (C) Transmission spectra for three samples in Figure 12B. (D) Comparison of measured and simulated spectra for TE- and TM-polarized transmission. Adapted from Ref. [135]. Copyright (2019) John Wiley & Sons.

Figure 13:

Simulation results.

(A) Simulation spectra for TE-polarized transmission with different degrees of disorder. (B) Simulated electric field profiles (E_y). The field profile of the guided resonance becomes more randomized as Δ_disorder increases. This behavior happens when the Fano resonance in the dielectric lattice structure is induced by a coherent mode distributed over the whole lattice, not by localized resonances in individual beams. Adapted from Ref. [135]. Copyright (2019) John Wiley & Sons.