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Bilingual autobiographical memory: unveiling the significance of memories encoded in multiple languages

  • Anastasia Sorokina ORCID logo EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: May 23, 2025
Multilingua
From the journal Multilingua Volume 44 Issue 4

Abstract

Research has shown that bilingual individuals might encode autobiographical memories in either their first language (L1) or their second language (L2), depending on the language spoken at the time of the event. Although language mixing is a common occurrence among multilingual speakers, previous studies have largely overlooked mixed memories – those encoded in both L1 and L2. The current study aims to bridge this research gap by analyzing a corpus of 1,297 memories (636 L1 memories, 357 L2 memories, and 305 mixed memories), with a particular focus on memory phenomenology, including factors such as vividness, emotional arousal, and personal significance. The statistical analysis revealed that mixed memories exhibited higher levels of emotional arousal and personal significance compared to memories encoded exclusively in L1 or L2. These findings underscore the unique status of mixed memories in the bilingual mind and emphasize the importance of adopting a heteroglossic approach to the study of bilingual autobiographical memory.

абстрактный

Исследования показывают, что билингвы могут фиксировать автобиографические воспоминания либо на первом языке (L1), либо на втором языке (L2), в зависимости от того, на каком языке они говорили в момент события. Хотя смешение языков – обычное явление среди многоязычных людей, предыдущие исследования в основном игнорировали так называемые смешанные воспоминания – те, которые были зафиксированы одновременно на L1 и L2. Настоящее исследование направлено на устранение этого пробела, анализируя корпус из 1,297 воспоминаний (636 воспоминаний на L1, 357 – на L2 и 305 – смешанных воспоминаний). Особое внимание уделялось феноменологическим характеристикам воспоминаний, таким как яркость, эмоциональная насыщенность и личная значимость. Статистический анализ показал, что смешанные воспоминания отличались более высокой эмоциональной насыщенностью и личной значимостью по сравнению с воспоминаниями, зафиксированными исключительно на L1 или L2. Полученные результаты подчеркивают особый статус смешанных воспоминаний в сознании билингвов и демонстрируют важность гетероглоссного подхода к изучению автобиографической памяти билингвов.

Keywords: bilingual autobiographical memory; memory phenomenology; mixed memories
Ключевые слова: автобиографическая память билингвов; феноменология памяти; смешанные воспоминания
Corresponding author: Anastasia Sorokina, Department of World Languages and Literatures, TESOL Program, Southern Connecticut State University, 501 Crescent St, New Haven, CT 06515 USA, E-mail:
Appendix A

Instructions to elicit memories[2]

You can choose any events you wish. The event must be one you were personally involved in, and you must have a recollection of being personally involved in. Do not pick events that you heard about from others. They must be events from a specific time and place. For example, playing basketball in school would not be sufficient. However, an event involving a specific basketball game would be good. I want you to provide as much detail as you can about the event. Our interest is not so much in which events you choose, but rather in how you describe them. So do not feel pressured to pick any particular event. I want you to know that I will be asking you to give some details for these events later, so be sure to only choose events that you feel comfortable discussing in detail.

Appendix B

Experimental cues

L2 English cues:

  1. Cookie monster

  2. Lego’s

  3. Bugs Bunny

  4. Play-Doh

  5. Mac n Cheese

  6. Beanie babies

  7. Jack-o-lantern

  8. School bus

  9. Animal crackers

  10. Safety scissors

  11. Rugrats

  12. Twizzlers

  13. Hot Wheels

  14. Recess

  15. Footsie pajamas

  16. Computer games

  17. Doll

  18. Favorite toy

  19. Slide

  20. Playing tag

  21. Ball

  22. Rubik’s cube

  23. Coloring pencils

  24. Sand box

  25. Baby chair

  26. Tricycle

  27. Teddy bear

  28. Jump rope

  29. Sled

  30. Swing

L1 Russian cues:

  1. Спокойной Ночи Малыши Spokoinoi nochi malyshy (Good night, baby! TV show)

  2. Пирожки Pirozhki (little pies)

  3. Неволяшка Nevolashka (Roly-poly doll)

  4. Перемена в школе Peremena v shkole (recess)

  5. Тихий час Tikhi chas (nap time, usually in pre-school)

  6. Карлсон Carlson (Cartoon character)

  7. Мороженое Morozhenoe (Soviet style Ice cream)

  8. Игра Ну погоди! Igra nu pogodi (Russian game boy)

  9. Школьная форма Shkol’naia forma (Soviet school uniform)

  10. Пластилин Plastilin (Russian Play-Doh)

  11. Винни Пух Vinni Pukh (Winnie the Pooh)

  12. Каша Kasha (Cereal for little children)

  13. Змейка Zmeika (Snake-like puzzle)

  14. Пропись Propis’ (Notebook for practicing cursive)

  15. Новогодние игрушки Novogodnie igrushki (Christmas tree decorations)

  16. Компьютерные игры Komp’uternie igry (computer games)

  17. Кукла Kukla (Doll)

  18. Любимая игрушка L’ubimaia igrushka (Favorite toy)

  19. Горка Gorka Slide)

  20. Играть в догонялки Igrat’ v dogonalki (Playing tag)

  21. Мяч Miach (Ball)

  22. Кубик Рубик Kubik Rubik (Rubik’s Cube)

  23. Карандаши Karandashy (Coloring pencils)

  24. Песочница Pesochnitsa (Sand box)

  25. Стульчик Stul’chik (Baby chair)

  26. Трехколесный велосипед Trekhkolesnyi velosiped (Tricycle)

  27. Плюшевый мишка Plushevyi mishka (Teddy bear)

  28. Скакалка Skakalka (Jump rope)

  29. Санки Sanki (Sled)

  30. Качели Kacheli (Swing)

Appendix C

Memory Questionnaire[3]

How vivid is this memory?

Very vague/vague/vivid/very vivid

Did this memory come to you with:

Words/visual/kinesthetic/sounds/smells/other.

Does this memory elicit any emotion?

No emotion/little emotion/moderate emotion/strong emotion

How often do you share this memory with others?

Never/seldom/often/very often

How often do you recall this memory to yourself?

Never/seldom/often/very often

How old were you at the time of the event?

What language(s) were spoken by you and/or around you at the time of the event?

English/Russian/English and Russian/other/none.

How easy was it to recall this event?

Very difficult/difficult/easy/very easy.

How significant is this memory?

Very insignificant/insignificant/significant/very significant

How confident are you that this event happened?

Very unsure/unsure/confident/very confident

Appendix D

CanDo scales Language Questionnaire[4]

Listed below are several “CanDo” scales. They consist of statements about your language proficiency in both Russian and English. Please read each description carefully and circle the appropriate number to indicate whether, at the present time, you would be able to carry out each task in the language in question. You can only circle one number per language and per statement. Please use the following scale:

1 = I cannot do this at all

2 = I can do this, but with much difficulty.

3 = I can do this, although with some difficulty.

4 = I can do this fairly easily.

5 = I can do this without any difficulty at all.

Listening:

I can understand everyday conversations/interactions.

I can understand movies and TV shows.

I can understand news on TV or on the radio.

I can understand academic lectures and presentations.

I can understand telephone conversations.

I can understand lyrics of songs.

Speaking:

I can participate in everyday conversations.

I can express my thoughts and ideas about current events.

I can present a clear and detailed argument.

I can participate in a debate/argument on a familiar topic.

I would be able to present in front of an audience on a familiar topic.

I can have a telephone conversation.

I can talk to people through video chat (Skype/Face time).

Reading:

I can easily understand e-mails.

I can understand newspapers

I can understand textbooks and articles.

I can understand prose (stories and novels) and poetry

I can understand social media (Face book/Twitter) language.

Writing:

I can write e-mails.

I can write short personal messages for my friends/relatives.

I can write a report about current events.

I can write an academic essay on a familiar topic.

I can express my emotions and feelings through writing.

I can write posts on social media (Face book/Twitter).

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Received: 2024-09-04
Accepted: 2025-04-14
Published Online: 2025-05-23
Published in Print: 2025-07-28

© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

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  1. Frontmatter
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https://doi.org/10.1515/multi-2024-0172
Keywords for this article
bilingual autobiographical memory; memory phenomenology; mixed memories

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Articles
  3. “The team members were very tolerant”: social interactional ideologies and power in an intercultural context
  4. Joulu Kotona (Christmas at home): translocal multilingual practices in a Facebook music livestream during COVID-19
  5. Language management in semi-peripheral game production: how foreign workers in Czech video game studios experience the use of English, Czech, and other Slavic languages
  6. Requesting at work: exploring the intercultural style hypothesis of German-English bilinguals
  7. Bilingual autobiographical memory: unveiling the significance of memories encoded in multiple languages
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