The Al Jazeera’s visual stance on 30 June revolution: visual appraisal and intertextuality in dialogue

4.1 Distance

Distance refers to the closeness of the relationships between the depicted persons and the viewer. For example, ‘long shot’ highlights social exclusion and vice versa, ‘close-up’ stands for intimate relations and social inclusion.

4.2 Social relation

The nature of social relation depends on the angle from which the shot is captured, and this includes either the vertical or the horizontal angles. The vertical angle portrays the person either frontally or from the side. It poses the question: Is the viewer looking up, down or are the viewer and the participant on the same level as the social actor? Therefore, the perspective shot voices two aspects of the represented social relation between the viewer and the people in the picture: power and involvement. Meanwhile, the horizontal angle suggests either involvement or detachment. See Figure 2.

Figure 2:

Camera angle and the representation of social actor (van Leeuwen 2008).

van Leeuwen’s (2008: 142) then proposes two questions regarding how the ‘language of images’ depicts people. The first is: how are people depicted as ‘others’? And the second is: what do these people do? In answering these questions, he (2008: 142–146) lists four strategies to be highlighted and examined:

1. Exclusion: Ruling out certain people from the social context (institutions, societies, nations, etc.) to which they belong in reality.

2. Role: The people in pictures may be depicted as active participants who are involved in some course of actions. On the contrary, they may be shown as passive participants who are undergoing the activity. Thus, role allocation is about portraying the social actors as either ‘agents’ or ‘patients.’

3. Individuals and groups: People may be depicted as individuals or groups. Showing people in groups, for instance, portrays them as homogeneous groups, which, in turn, deprive them individual characteristics and differences; they appear as if they are all the same.

4. Categorization: Categorization assigns negative cultural connotations to the represented participants through the deployment of particular visual attributes such as the heads covers and hijabs.

6.1 Criticizing the Egyptian military: borrowed visual techniques

One of the reiterated ideological positioning in the features analysed is the Muslim Brotherhood versus the Egyptian Military theme. This positioning is mainly reliant on portraying the military as the trigger of violence, social fraction and political disturbances. See Figure 3.

Figure 3:

Silhouette as a borrowed technique for realizing authorial subjectivity.

The photo is taken from a distance shot [negative JUDGEMENT: social esteem: normality: unfamiliar]. The APC is a token of [negative JUDGEMENT: social esteem: normality: violent]. A remarkable authorial textural technique characterizing this photo is that of silhouetting. According to Douglis (2013), silhouette identifies given objects as a way of “[A]bstracting them – often showing less and saying more in the process. We can use those silhouettes to create symbols and metaphors that provoke the imagination and thoughts of our viewers”. This textural choice of silhouette removes personal detail and abstracts facial expressions, which, in turn, evokes a more negative evaluative reading of the three soldiers and stresses their metonymic representation as well [negative APPRECIATION: reaction: abstraction and emotional detachment]. Thus, silhouette positions the viewers negatively against the three soldiers.

Due to the clear contrast between brightness and darkness, the textural choices of colours and camera angel in Figure 3 are extreme in a way that signals authorial subjectivity and identifies the photo as marked. That is to say, the photo is portrayed in the authorial voice which is the result of the photographer’s choices (e.g. time of day, angle and distance) followed by the editor’s selection of this photo in particular. In this sense, it belongs to VIK since it displays high evaluative resources.

The visual intertextuality exists between the image and the hyper two images; Lures, is that of sequencing marking antecedent and consequence relation. Such visual intertextual relation assigns a sense of storytelling serialization. The nucleus image presents a soldier pointing his APC at a distant invisible enemy followed by an image of destruction and flaming fire and a close-up image of a wounded demonstrator as if indicating that the military presence in the political life in Egypt is the reason behind destruction, human suffering and unrest. Figure 4 illustrates the intertextual sequencing relation.

Figure 4:

Intertextual sequencing.

6.2 Criticizing the Egyptian military: metonymic institutionalization

Figure 5 narrows the scope of the stance expressed in the headline (Egypt’s division starker than ever) by defining the social actor and contextualizing the event. The negatively appraised wire fence acts as a token for associating negative JUDGEMENT with the Egyptian Army. It is depicted in the photo as an attribute of the restrictions placed by the army on the Muslim Brotherhood. The fence could be a symbolic attribute of not only a physical separation, but an ideological or political separation as well, which, in turn, corresponds visually to the word ‘division’ found in the headline.

Figure 5:

Visual metonymic institutionalization.

The fence can be read as an attribute of the oppressed demonstrators [positive JUDGEMENT: capacity: helpless] who are deprived their right to stage demonstrations at Al Tahrir. It is there to keep the supporters of Morsi out of Al Tahrir. Although not being foregrounded, the most salient elements in the picture are the APCs due to their size and colour. They are also intensified due to their visual repetition. The APCs evoke as well [negative JUDGEMENT: social sanction: propriety: use of force]. Heteroglossically, they function, along with the barbed fence, as visual quotes [incorporate].

The soldiers, they are visible yet abstracted since no facial expressions are shown. Accordingly, the photo is an example of homogeneous collectivization [negative APPRECIATION: reaction: detaching]. Thus, metonymic institutionalization is addressed. They are culturally categorized by wearing clothes that viewers may relate to combat fighters. The shooting perspective provides a vector running throughout the fence to the background ending in the Al Tahrir complex. It can be considered a ‘locative of circumstance’ (Kress and van Leeuwen 2006) since it provides information concerning the setting of the image; which is Al Tahrir square.

The intertextual relation between the nucleus image and two accompanying Lures is that of clustering. A montage effect is provoked since each photo contributes to the general underlying theme of restricting the freedom of demonstrations. As for the first Lure, it intertextually refers back to the battle of the Camel. The battle of the Camel was a crucial event in Egypt’s 2011 uprising when Al Tahrir square was besieged by thousands of Mubarak’s loyalists to expel the demonstrators of the square by force. In this context, bringing the nucleus image and the Lure together draws an analogy between the military and Mubarak’s thugs. Both wanted to circumvent the freedom of the protesters. This is evidenced in Figure 6.

Figure 6:

First Lure image enlarged.

6.3 Alluding the corruption of the judicial system: visual Otherness

By examining the social context to which Figure 7 is related, it is found that the Brotherhood Group claims that all their gains at the polls were reversed by both the Mubarak-appointed Supreme Constitutional Court (SCC) and the military. Besides, they argue that the lower house of parliament, of which the Islamists won seventy three percent of the seats, was dissolved by the SCC on the behest of the military (Al Amin 2013). Moreover, the military suspended the new constitution, while ousting the so-called democratically-elected president and appointed the head of the court as the interim president which adds more to the claimed deal between the two institutions.

Figure 7:

Visual othering.

Figure 7 is taken from a low angle, presenting the soldier as having symbolic power over the viewers. In addition, camera angle is oblique establishing a sense of detachment between the depicted soldier and the viewers [negative JUDGEMENT: social esteem: tenacity: normal: impersonalized]. The oblique angle stresses the Otherness of the represented soldier. Interestingly, it is not the soldier; rather the machine gun is the closest to the viewer [high GRADUATION: spatial intensification: force]. Such foregrounding of the machine renders it as a symbolic attribute.

Being a long, horizontal shot and taken from an oblique angle, the photograph is the visual equivalent of van Leeuwen’s (2008) ‘passive agent backgrounding’. The soldier’s (target) behaviour and facial expressions are neither individualized nor clear [low GRADUATION: focus] as if he is a mere metonymic representative of the military institution. The camera focus then evokes [negative APPRECIATION: reaction: abstraction: emotional disconnection]. This idea is a recurrent theme in the analysed data since the military soldiers are depicted with no explicit facial expressions. Values of negative propriety are evoked against the military by depicting the SCC in the background of the soldier. It appears that the soldier guards the court which carries an intertextual reference to the alleged deals made between the military and the SCC [negative JUDGEMENT: social sanction: veracity: corruption]. The photo belongs to VIK due to its shooting techniques.

A visual intertextuality of pairing is evident between the nucleus image and the second Lure. Introducing the two images side-by-side introduces a surplus of meanings, which, in turn, enhances the negative evaluation expressed. The recurrent theme of negatively appraising the military is evident in the following example as well.

6.4 Condemning the crackdown operation: dramatizing interdiscursivity

In Figure 8, the participants are portrayed with a relatively low-angle shot to highlight the land with the burned rubbles and blazing fire. What is interesting about the low-angle shot here is that it captures the context the participants belong to, which is that of aggression and devastation from the part of the soldiers and helplessness from the part of Morsi’s supporters. This can be interpreted as an attempt of the photographer to place them in a certain social and cultural environment. The depicted human participants’ behaviour and material objects in the given photo express inscribed AFFECT [negative AFFECT: insecure: vulnerable and week] and [negative AFFECT: disinclination: terrorized]. The photo evokes as well certain attitude values of APPRECIATION in viewers: [social sanction: propriety: violence and aggressiveness].

Figure 8:

Interdiscursive dramatization of the crackdown event.

The plumes of smoke and destruction may evoke in the viewer shared negative AFFECT against the police institution in Egypt as the doer of such depicted destructions [negative AFFECT: dissatisfaction: anger]. The photo also evokes empathy with the supporters of Morsi [positive AFFECT: sympathy]. As for JUDGEMENT, the resources depicted in this photo are evoked rather than inscribed. The material effect of the depicted fire, fume, debris and overwhelming destruction serves as an attributed negative JUDGEMENT of the security forces (tokens of the government). Moreover, the visual elements of fire, fumes and debris inscribe negative APPRECIATION resources of reaction and composition [reaction: dramatic]. The photo shares VRK since it depicts actual scene in the location of the crackdown after it has taken place.

Visual intertextuality is also evident by the technique of clustered montage among the nucleus image and the two accompanying Lures. The sequencing of the events is not temporal since they all depict the crackdown event but with different visual proximity. The hyper Lures visualize the theme of the crackdown and coup negatively as intended by the editorial board. Clustered intertextuality here emphasizes the trails of devastation the crackdown left behind. They correspond visually to the nucleus image with the smoke overwhelming most of the photos while presenting the security forces as the trigger (Figure 9).

Figure 9:

Intertextual clustering (Lures cropped and enlarged).

6.5 Praising the supporters of Morsi: evoked religious sentiment

Figure 10 utilizes religious sentiment which is a recurrent theme as far as the Muslim Brotherhood is concerned. The shot is a street scene depicting Morsi’s loyalists as performing the religious ritual of praying which invokes positive JUDGEMENT values [positive JUDGEMENT: social sanction: veracity: reverent]. This stresses the idea that the sit-ins are but a peaceful resistance to the army’s removal of the Islamist President [positive APPRECIATION: valuation: social significance: religious ritual]. The shot is taken during daytime which indicates high GRADUATION values due to its brightness. Same notion is evident in Figure 11.

Figure 10:

Evoked religious sentiment.

Figure 11:

Functional categorization of social actors.

The long line of men sitting on the floor metonymically symbolizes the huge number of the Morsi’s loyalists. This is an example of van Leeuwen’s (2008) ‘functionalization’. The social actors are categorized by what they do. They are visually reduced to just one action: praying, which, in turn, refutes any other negative actions associated with the sit-ins at that time. The photo depicts the protesters as doing one of the pillars of prayers; sitting between the two prostrations. The gesture of placing the body in a reverential as well as submissive position acts as a paralinguistic visual quote [heteroglossic: incorporate: visual quote: paralinguistic gesture].

As for the JUDGEMENT values evoked, the social actors are identified visually based on the action of prayer they are doing. They are, accordingly, attached to what is assumed to be the typical behaviour of reverent Muslims [positive JUDGEMENT: social sanction: propriety: reverent] and [social sanction: veracity: worship]. Accordingly, a moral alignment is established evoking shared values of respect [positive APPRECIATION: reaction: regard highly] to do with the sacredness of praying. A cultural alignment is established as well evoking positive values of solidarity with the protesters [positive APPRECIATION: reaction: attachment].

As for the visual intertextuality established between the nucleus image and the two adjunct Lures, it is found that clustering is assumed. Intertextual clustering here implies the recurrent theme of victimizing the supporters of Morsi and iconizing their demonstrations, sit-ins or cause, in general, along with demonizing the military and security forces as the responsible for the blood shedding. Figure 12 is illustrative.

Figure 12:

Intertextual clustering.

Intertextual clustering in this instance carries implicit legitimization of the Brotherhoods’ staged demonstrations against the military and in solidarity with Morsi.

6.6 Individualizing the Brotherhood Group: cinematizing interdiscursivity

The shooting technique of Figure 13 adopts telephoto lens with shorter focal lengths. Telephoto lens is used to isolate the participant while making the backgrounded APCs and the soldier appear as if, although having a long distance between them, they are visually close. Furthermore, such a shooting lens provides a closer perspective of the subject matter so as to personalize him. The vector formed by the represented participant’s eyelines connects him with the viewers as if appealing to their conscience [high GRADUATION: focus: proximity] and [positive APPRECIATION: reaction: emotional involvement]. Moreover, there is another vector which is formed by the participant’s handcuffed gesture moving in the same direction with his eye gaze as if asking for the viewers’ help to set him free. Depicting the soldier with the APCs in the tele-close background (distance shot of a tele-lens) indicates metonymically that the military institution is the trigger for the young man’s negative AFFECT.

Figure 13:

Telephoto lens and cinematizing character shot.

Heteroglossically, cinematizing character shot is achieved by presenting the young man muffled and handcuffed by the Egyptian flag in a mid-shot accompanied by high focus GRADUATION resources [high GRADUATION: sharp camera focus: high clarity]. Moreover, the participant’s gaze and gesture are the most salient elements of the composition. This creates an environment associated with cinematic shots that aims to emotionally involve viewers with the young man as a character in a dramatic event. The photo is heteroglossically sourced by VIK, which is achieved by extreme camera focus and colour contrast. Visual ENGAGEMENT value in this image is then [heteroglossic: entertain], which foregrounds authorial subjectivity. The photo employs visual quotes by depicting paralinguistic behaviour. This can be deemed a token of the youths’ suppression, which, in turn, invokes negative JUDGEMENT against the Egyptian Military [negative JUDGEMENT: sanction: propriety: oppressive institution].

6.7 Visual sensationalization

Grabe et al. (2001) state that sensationalism presents news stories that incite emotional and sensorial stimulation or arousal in the spectators. Correspondingly, Figure 14 recalls what Zelizer (2010) labels ‘contorted death’. Contorted death is the depiction of twisted masses of bodies, often at make-shift morgues. Emotional sensations increase audience’s memory recall and understanding (Pantti 2010). The photo emphasizes the crackdown operation and the resulting deaths and suffering of the followers of Morsi [negative JUDGEMENT: social sanction: propriety: excessive use of force].

Figure 14:

Visual sensationalism.

Figure 14 depicts a pile of dead bodies and displayed traces of blood using horizontal wide shot to include as many corps, invoking [negative APPRECIATION: valuation: brutality] of the dispersal operation. There are four social actors presented with the many dead bodies lined on the floor of the mosque creating a narrative vector. The foregrounded standing man is probably searching for a dead relative among the corpses. The other man of the oblique angle is talking, as indicated by his body gesture, to another participant of whom only his arm depicted. The fourth actor is depicted from a sideline shot as fixing or turning on a standing fan (maybe it is there to keep the dead bodies cool). The active participants of the photo do not interact with the viewers on any level. Thus, there is a gap between the viewers and the actors. This gap, in turn, indicates that this photo is an impersonal one, making the visual focus go to the dead bodies. The photo also encapsulates the dispersal operation into a mass killing, evoking negative values of APPRECIATION. These APPRECIATION values are linked to evoked negative JUDGEMENT resources of the military and the security forces as being the responsible [Negative APPRECIATION: impact: reaction: shocking and sensational]. The photo evokes as well strong associated AFFECT in viewers; anger at the target [negative AFFECT: dissatisfaction: rage] and sadness at the loss of lives [negative AFFECT: sad].

Al Jazeera, in this sense, seeks to iconize the suffering and deaths experienced by the supporters of Morsi. The notion of iconizing the crackdown operation is 212 extended to the image of the second hyperlink. The Lure offers mapping of Rabaa Square as the main sit-in of pro-Morsi. Accordingly, Al Jazeera editorial board aims at iconizing the square. Wood and Fels (1992: 117) put it “[i]conicity is the indispensable quality of the map”. It is the source and principle of the map’s analogy to objects, places, relations, and events. Therefore, the map is an icon in the sense that it is a visual analogue of a geographic landscape, see Figure 15.

Figure 15:

The map as an iconic intertextual visuality.

6.8 Iconizing the symbol of Rabia:^[2] visual quoting

Figure 16 includes a direct gaze to the viewers by most of the photo participants. The participants form leading lines that draw the viewer’s eye to the photograph of the ousted Morsi and the gesture of Rabia sign. Leading lines interact with the visual quote of a poster depicting the former President Morsi in a way that provokes positive JUDGEMENT targeting the depicted social actor (Morsi) [social esteem: tenacity: perseverance]. Thus, due to a visual spatial effect created by angles and the size of frame chosen, his hand with Rabia sign is given higher force than other body parts [spatial high GRADUATION: force: close shot: salience]. It acts as a visual quote as well [heteroglossic: attributed: incorporate: paralinguistic gesture]. Being a reminiscent of the massacre caused by the dispersal operation, such a paralinguistic gesture of Rabia evokes both [negative APPRECIATION: valuation: social injustice and brutality] and [positive JUDGEMENT: social esteem: normality: tenacity: social affiliation].

Figure 16:

Iconizing the symbol of Rabia.

The demonstrators are used to create a visual narrative in the composition [positive APPRECIATION: composition: significant meaning]. The photo includes inscribed attitudinal values that are brought into by an attributed external voice. In other words, both the target of ATTITUDE values (the included photo of Morsi and the sign of Rabia) and the appraisers (the demonstrators) are depicted, and, hence, each value is externally attributed to a voice other than the photo producers. This photo is characterized with high AFFECT and high JUDGEMENT provoked. By identifying the evaluative meanings voiced by the facial expressions and body language of human participants, it is found that the majority of AFFECT resources are negative feelings of resentment [negative AFFECT: dissatisfaction: anger]. In addition to the included attitudinal values, the photo is marked by VIK key since what it portrays is not a factual proposition due to camera focus and spatial distribution. In this sense, the photo can be regarded as heteroglossic, where there is an interplay between internal and external authorial voices, or in other words, authorial and attributed voices. The internal authorial voice is that of [heteroglossic: entertain] which are realized here by relying on extreme camera focus. Meanwhile, the external voice is evident by attributed [heteroglossic: incorporate] through the use of three types of visual quotes: visual text, verbal text and paralinguistic gesture.

As for visual intertextuality, the two hyper images (Lures) intertextually relate to and expand visually the ideological proposition suggested by the headline and the photo via visual pairing. The first hyper photo depicts the fumes and destruction resulting from the crackdown. Meanwhile, the second hyper image reinforces further this notion and presents the cause of the destruction by depicting the foreign Prime Minister as metonymic representative of the Egyptian government after the so-called coup and the ousting of Morsi. Hence, intertextual montage effect is achieved. Figure 17 is illustrative.

Figure 17:

Intertextual montage effect is evident (ideologically relating destruction and protesting to transitional government).