Avoiding the prenatal programming effects of glucocorticoids: are there alternative treatments for the induction of antenatal lung maturation?

References

[1] March of Dimes, PMNCH, Save the Children, WHO. Born too soon: the global action report on preterm birth. Geneva, 2012.Search in Google Scholar

[2] Australian collaborative trial of antenatal thyrotropin-releasing hormone (ACTOBAT) for prevention of neonatal respiratory disease. Lancet 1995;345:877–82.Search in Google Scholar

[3] Ahlfeld SK, Conway SJ. Aberrant signaling pathways of the lung mesenchyme and their contributions to the pathogenesis of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Birth Defects Res Part A Clin Mol. 2012;94:3–15.Search in Google Scholar

[4] Alapati D, Rong M, Chen S, Hehre D, Rodriguez MM, Lipson KE, et al. Connective tissue growth factor antibody therapy attenuates hyperoxia-induced lung injury in neonatal rats. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2011;45:1169–77.Search in Google Scholar

[5] Alexander N, Rosenlocher F, Stalder T, Linke J, Distler W, Morgner J, et al. Impact of antenatal synthetic glucocorticoid exposure on endocrine stress reactivity in term-born children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97:3538–44.Search in Google Scholar

[6] Ambalavanan N, Tyson JE, Kennedy KA, Hansen NI, Vohr BR, Wright LL, et al. Vitamin A supplementation for extremely low birth weight infants: outcome at 18 to 22 months. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e249–54.Search in Google Scholar

[7] Anyaegbunam WI, Adetona AB. Use of antenatal corticosteroids for fetal maturation in preterm infants. Am Fam Physician. 1997;56:1093–6.Search in Google Scholar

[8] Ballard PL, Ballard RA, Ning Y, Cnann A, Boardman C, Pinto-Martin J, et al. Plasma thyroid hormones in premature infants: effect of gestational age and antenatal thyrotropin-releasing hormone treatment. TRH Collaborative Trial Participants. Pediatr Res. 1998;44:642–9.Search in Google Scholar

[9] Ballard RA, Ballard PL. Antenatal hormone therapy for improving the outcome of the preterm infant. J Perinatol. 1996;16:390–6.Search in Google Scholar

[10] Ballard RA, Ballard PL, Cnaan A, Pinto-Martin J, Davis DJ, Padbury JF, et al. Antenatal thyrotropin-releasing hormone to prevent lung disease in preterm infants. North American Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:493–8.Search in Google Scholar

[11] Barkai G, Reichman B, Lusky A, Dan U, Sack J, Goldman B, et al. The effect of thyroxine and corticosteroids upon amniotic fluid fluorescence polarization: a randomized controlled study. J Perinat Med. 1992;20:459–64.Search in Google Scholar

[12] Baytur YB, Ozbilgin K, Yuksel H, Kose C. Antenatal administration of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor increases fetal lung maturation and endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression in the fetal rat lung. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2008;136:171–7.Search in Google Scholar

[13] Been JV, Zimmermann LJ. Histological chorioamnionitis and respiratory outcome in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2009;94:F218–25.Search in Google Scholar

[14] Blackwell TS, Hipps AN, Yamamoto Y, Han W, Barham WJ, Ostrowski MC, et al. NF-kappaB signaling in fetal lung macrophages disrupts airway morphogenesis. J Immunol. 2011;187:2740–7.Search in Google Scholar

[15] Bonanno C, Wapner RJ. Antenatal corticosteroid treatment: what’s happened since Drs Liggins and Howie? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009;200:448–57.Search in Google Scholar

[16] Braun T, Challis JR, Newnham JP, Sloboda DM. Early-life glucocorticoid exposure: the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, placental function, and long-term disease risk. Endocr Rev. 2013;34:885–916.Search in Google Scholar

[17] Braun T, Husar A, Challis JR, Dudenhausen JW, Henrich W, Plagemann A, et al. Growth restricting effects of a single course of antenatal betamethasone treatment and the role of human placental lactogen. Placenta. 2013;34:407–15.Search in Google Scholar

[18] Brownfoot FC, Crowther CA, Middleton P. Different corticosteroids and regimens for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008:CD006764.Search in Google Scholar

[19] Bry K, Lappalainen U, Hallman M. Intraamniotic interleukin-1 accelerates surfactant protein synthesis in fetal rabbits and improves lung stability after premature birth. J Clin Invest. 1997;99:2992–9.Search in Google Scholar

[20] Caughey AB, Parer JT. Recommendations for repeat courses of antenatal corticosteroids: a decision analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;186:1221–6; discussion 6–9.Search in Google Scholar

[21] Chailley-Heu B, Chelly N, Lelievre-Pegorier M, Barlier-Mur AM, Merlet-Benichou C, Bourbon JR. Mild vitamin A deficiency delays fetal lung maturation in the rat. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1999;21:89–96.Search in Google Scholar

[22] Chelly N, Mouhieddine-Gueddiche OB, Barlier-Mur AM, Chailley-Heu B, Bourbon JR. Keratinocyte growth factor enhances maturation of fetal rat lung type II cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1999;20:423–32.Search in Google Scholar

[23] Chen CM, Wang LF. High-dose vascular endothelial growth factor increases surfactant protein gene expressions in preterm rat lung. Early Hum Dev. 2007;83:581–4.Search in Google Scholar

[24] Chen CM, Chou HC, Wang LF, Yeh TF. Effects of maternal retinoic acid administration on lung angiogenesis in oligohydramnios-exposed fetal rats. Pediatr Neonatol. 2013;54: 88–94.Search in Google Scholar

[25] Chen XQ, Wu SH, Guo XR, Zhou XY. Effects of antenatal application of ambroxol and glucocorticoid on lung morphometry and signal transduction of bone morphogenetic protein in the fetal rat 2012. Mol Med Rep. 2012;6:63–8.Search in Google Scholar

[26] Cho SJ, George CL, Snyder JM, Acarregui MJ. Retinoic acid and erythropoietin maintain alveolar development in mice treated with an angiogenesis inhibitor. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2005;33:622–8.Search in Google Scholar

[27] Cho Y, Jang YY, Han ES, Lee CS. The inhibitory effect of ambroxol on hypochlorous acid-induced tissue damage and respiratory burst of phagocytic cells. Eur J Pharmacol. 1999;383:83–91.Search in Google Scholar

[28] Collins JJ, Kallapur SG, Knox CL, Nitsos I, Polglase GR, Pillow JJ, et al. Inflammation in fetal sheep from intra-amniotic injection of Ureaplasma parvum. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2010;299:L852–60.Search in Google Scholar

[29] Compernolle V, Brusselmans K, Acker T, Hoet P, Tjwa M, Beck H, et al. Loss of HIF-2alpha and inhibition of VEGF impair fetal lung maturation, whereas treatment with VEGF prevents fatal respiratory distress in premature mice. Nat Med. 2002;8:702–10.Search in Google Scholar

[30] Crowley PA. Antenatal corticosteroid therapy: a meta-analysis of the randomized trials, 1972 to 1994. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1995;173:322–35.Search in Google Scholar

[31] Crowther C. The ACTOBAT debate. Pediatrics. 1997;100:418–9.Search in Google Scholar

[32] Crowther CA, Hiller JE, Haslam RR, Robinson JS. Australian collaborative trial of antenatal thyrotropin-releasing hormone: adverse effects at 12-month follow-up. ACTOBAT Study Group. Pediatrics. 1997;99:311–7.Search in Google Scholar

[33] Crowther CA, Alfirevic Z, Haslam RR. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone added to corticosteroids for women at risk of preterm birth for preventing neonatal respiratory disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004:CD000019.Search in Google Scholar

[34] Crowther CA, Harding JE. Repeat doses of prenatal corticosteroids for women at risk of preterm birth for preventing neonatal respiratory disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007:CD003935.Search in Google Scholar

[35] Crudo A, Petropoulos S, Moisiadis VG, Iqbal M, Kostaki A, Machnes Z, et al. Prenatal synthetic glucocorticoid treatment changes DNA methylation states in male organ systems: multigenerational effects. Endocrinol. 2012;153:3269–83.Search in Google Scholar

[36] Dalziel SR, Walker NK, Parag V, Mantell C, Rea HH, Rodgers A, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors after antenatal exposure to betamethasone: 30-year follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;365:1856–62.Search in Google Scholar

[37] Dani C, Grella PV, Lazzarin L, Rubaltelli FF. Antenatal ambroxol treatment does not prevent the respiratory distress syndrome in premature infants. Eur J Pediatr. 1997;156:392–3.Search in Google Scholar

[38] Darlow BA, Graham PJ. Vitamin A supplementation to prevent mortality and short- and long-term morbidity in very low birthweight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011:CD000501.Search in Google Scholar

[39] Davis EP, Waffarn F, Sandman CA. Prenatal treatment with glucocorticoids sensitizes the hpa axis response to stress among full-term infants. Dev Psychobiol. 2011;53:175–83.Search in Google Scholar

[40] Debeer A, Sbragia L, Vrancken K, Hendriks A, Roubliova X, Jani J, et al. Antenatal fetal VEGF therapy to promote pulmonary maturation in a preterm rabbit model. Early Hum Dev. 2010;86:99–105.Search in Google Scholar

[41] Disse BG. The pharmacology of ambroxol–review and new results. Eur J Respir Dis. 1987;153:255–62.Search in Google Scholar

[42] Dudenhausen JW. Alternatives to the antenatal glucocorticoid treatment for the prevention of respiratory distress syndrome. J Perinat Med. 1987;15:453–9.Search in Google Scholar

[43] Ee L, Hagan R, Evans S, French N. Antenatal steroids, condition at birth and respiratory morbidity and mortality in very preterm infants. J Paediatr Child Health. 1998;34:377–83.Search in Google Scholar

[44] Elimian A, Verma U, Beneck D, Cipriano R, Visintainer P, Tejani N. Histologic chorioamnionitis, antenatal steroids, and perinatal outcomes. Obstet Gynecol. 2000;96:333–6.Search in Google Scholar

[45] Emerson GA, Bry K, Hallman M, Jobe AH, Wada N, Ervin MG, et al. Intra-amniotic interleukin-1 alpha treatment alters postnatal adaptation in premature lambs. Biol Neonate. 1997;72:370–9.Search in Google Scholar

[46] Erdemir G, Kultursay N, Calkavur S, Zekioglu O, Koroglu OA, Cakmak B, et al. Histological chorioamnionitis: effects on premature delivery and neonatal prognosis. Pediatr Neonatol. 2013;54:267–74.Search in Google Scholar

[47] French NP, Hagan R, Evans SF, Mullan A, Newnham JP. Repeated antenatal corticosteroids: effects on cerebral palsy and childhood behavior. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;190:588–95.Search in Google Scholar

[48] Fu XM, Yu JL, Liu GX, Deng B. [Comparison of the effect of ambroxol and dexamethasone on the expression of pulmonary surfactant proteins in the fetal rat lungs]. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi. 2004;42:450–3.Search in Google Scholar

[49] Gras-Le Guen C, Denis C, Franco-Montoya ML, Jarry A, Delacourt C, Potel G, et al. Antenatal infection in the rabbit impairs post-natal growth and lung alveolarisation. Eur Respir J. 2008;32:1520–8.Search in Google Scholar

[50] Gross I, Moya FR. Is there a role for antenatal TRH therapy for the prevention of neonatal lung disease? Semin Perinatol. 2001;25:406–16.Search in Google Scholar

[51] Halliday HL. Useless perinatal therapies. Neonatology 2010;97:358–65.Search in Google Scholar

[52] Harding JE, Pang J, Knight DB, Liggins GC. Do antenatal corticosteroids help in the setting of preterm rupture of membranes? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;184:131–9.Search in Google Scholar

[53] Hartling L, Liang Y, Lacaze-Masmonteil T. Chorioamnionitis as a risk factor for bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2012;97:F8–17.Search in Google Scholar

[54] Heytmanek G, Salzer H, Vityska-Binstorfer E, Genger H, Metka M, Pfersmann R, et al. [Ambroxol versus betamethasone for the promotion of antepartum lung maturity in pathological pregnancies]. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 1990;102:443–8.Search in Google Scholar

[55] Husain AN, Siddiqui NH, Stocker JT. Pathology of arrested acinar development in postsurfactant bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Hum Pathol. 1998;29:710–7.Search in Google Scholar

[56] Jenkins TM, Wapner RJ, Thom EA, Das AF, Spong CY. Are weekly courses of antenatal steroids beneficial or dangerous? JAMA-J Am Med. 2002;287:187–8; author reply 9–90.Search in Google Scholar

[57] Jobe AH, Soll RF. Choice and dose of corticosteroid for antenatal treatments. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;190:878–81.Search in Google Scholar

[58] Jobe AH. Lung maturation: the survival miracle of very low birth weight infants. Pediatr Neonatol. 2010;51:7–13.Search in Google Scholar

[59] Kallapur SG, Bachurski CJ, Le Cras TD, Joshi SN, Ikegami M, Jobe AH. Vascular changes after intra-amniotic endotoxin in preterm lamb lungs. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2004;287:L1178–85.Search in Google Scholar

[60] Kallapur SG, Jobe AH. Contribution of inflammation to lung injury and development. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2006;91:F132–5.Search in Google Scholar

[61] Kari MA, Hallman M, Eronen M, Teramo K, Virtanen M, Koivisto M, et al. Prenatal dexamethasone treatment in conjunction with rescue therapy of human surfactant: a randomized placebo-controlled multicenter study. Pediatrics 1994;93:730–6.Search in Google Scholar

[62] Karow T, Lang-Roth R. Allgemeine und Spezielle Pharmakologie. Pulheim: Thomas Karow; 2008.Search in Google Scholar

[63] Khandelwal M, Chang E, Hansen C, Hunter K, Milcarek B. Betamethasone dosing interval: 12 or 24 hours apart? A randomized, noninferiority open trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;206:201e1–11.Search in Google Scholar

[64] Khulan B, Drake AJ. Glucocorticoids as mediators of developmental programming effects. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Met. 2012;26:689–700.Search in Google Scholar

[65] Kim EY, Battaile JT, Patel AC, You Y, Agapov E, Grayson MH, et al. Persistent activation of an innate immune response translates respiratory viral infection into chronic lung disease. Nat Med. 2008;14:633–40.Search in Google Scholar

[66] Kimya Y, Kucukkomurcu S, Ozan H, Uncu G. Antenatal ambroxol usage in the prevention of infant respiratory distress syndrome. Beneficial and adverse effects. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol. 1995;22:204–11.Search in Google Scholar

[67] Kinney MV, Lawn JE, Howson CP, Belizan J. 15 Million preterm births annually: what has changed this year? Reprod Health. 2012;9:28.Search in Google Scholar

[69] Kramer BW, Moss TJ, Willet KE, Newnham JP, Sly PD, Kallapur SG, et al. Dose and time response after intraamniotic endotoxin in preterm lambs. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:982–8.Search in Google Scholar

[69] Kramer BW. Antenatal inflammation and lung injury: prenatal origin of neonatal disease. J Perinatol. 2008;28(Suppl 1):S21–7.Search in Google Scholar

[70] Kramer BW, Albertine KH, Moss TJ, Nitsos I, Ladenburger A, Speer CP, et al. All-trans retinoic acid and intra-amniotic endotoxin-mediated effects on fetal sheep lung. Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2008;291:1271–7.Search in Google Scholar

[71] Kramer BW, Ladenburger A, Kunzmann S, Speer CP, Been JV, van Iwaarden JF, et al. Intravenous lipopolysaccharide-induced pulmonary maturation and structural changes in fetal sheep. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009;200:195e1–10.Search in Google Scholar

[72] Kugelman A, Durand M. A comprehensive approach to the prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2011;46:1153–65.Search in Google Scholar

[73] Kunzmann S, Collins JJ, Kuypers E, Kramer BW. Thrown off balance: the effect of antenatal inflammation on the developing lung and immune system. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2013;208:429–37.Search in Google Scholar

[74] Kuypers E, Collins JJ, Kramer BW, Ofman G, Nitsos I, Pillow JJ, et al. Intra-amniotic LPS and antenatal betamethasone: inflammation and maturation in preterm lamb lungs. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2012;302:L380–9.Search in Google Scholar

[75] Kuypers E, Willems MG, Collins JJ, Wolfs TG, Nitsos I, Jane Pillow J, et al. Altered canonical Wingless-Int signaling in the ovine fetal lung after exposure to intra-amniotic lipopolysaccharide and antenatal betamethasone. Pediatr Res. 2014;75:281–7.Search in Google Scholar

[76] Kyle H, Widdicombe JG. Secretion of mucus induced by ambroxol in the ferret trachea. Eur J Respir Dis. 1987;71:274–91.Search in Google Scholar

[77] Lachmann B, Tischer AB, Grossmann G, Robertson B. Lung compliance and alveolar expansion in the artificially ventilated premature newborn rabbit after maternal treatment with ambroxol. Respiration 1981;42:209–16.Search in Google Scholar

[78] Laoag-Fernandez JB, Fernandez AM, Maruo T. Antenatal use of ambroxol for the prevention of infant respiratory distress syndrome. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2000;26:307–12.Search in Google Scholar

[79] Lewis NA, Holm BA, Rossman J, Swartz D, Glick PL. Late administration of antenatal vitamin A promotes pulmonary structural maturation and improves ventilation in the lamb model of congenital diaphragmatic hernia. Pediatr Surg Int. 2011;27:119–24.Search in Google Scholar

[80] Liggins GC, Howie RN. A controlled trial of antepartum glucocorticoid treatment for prevention of the respiratory distress syndrome in premature infants. Pediatrics. 1972;50:515–25.Search in Google Scholar

[81] Long NM, Ford SP, Nathanielsz PW. Multigenerational effects of fetal dexamethasone exposure on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis of first- and second-generation female offspring. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;208:217.e1–217.e8.Search in Google Scholar

[82] LU C, LIN A. The Effect of Dexamethasone and Ambroxol on Weights of Rabbit Fetal Tissues and Organs and of the Body. J Pediatr Pharm. 2009;4.Search in Google Scholar

[83] Luerti M, Lazzarin A, Corbella E, Zavattini G. An alternative to steroids for prevention of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS): multicenter controlled study to compare ambroxol and betamethasone. J Perinat Med. 1987;15:227–38.Search in Google Scholar

[84] Lyons CA, Garite TJ. Corticosteroids and fetal pulmonary maturity. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2002;45:35–41.Search in Google Scholar

[85] Maden M, Hind M. Retinoic acid in alveolar development, maintenance and regeneration. Philos Trans R Soc Lond, B, Biol Sci. 2004;359:799–808.Search in Google Scholar

[86] Malerba M, Ragnoli B. Ambroxol in the 21st century: pharmacological and clinical update. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2008;4:1119–29.Search in Google Scholar

[87] Marinov B, Jekova N, Andreeva A, Hitrova S. [Antenatal ambroxol administration for prevention of respiratopry distress syndrome in preterm infants: preliminary report]. Akush Ginekol. 2011;50:17–22.Search in Google Scholar

[88] Massaro GD, Massaro D. Postnatal treatment with retinoic acid increases the number of pulmonary alveoli in rats. Am J Physiol. 1996;270:L305–10.Search in Google Scholar

[89] Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA Statement. Open medicine: a peer-reviewed, independent, open-access journal. 2009;3:e123–30.Search in Google Scholar

[90] Moisiadis VG, Matthews SG. Glucocorticoids and fetal programming part 2: mechanisms. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2014;10:403–11.Search in Google Scholar

[91] Moisiadis VG, Matthews SG. Glucocorticoids and fetal programming part 1: outcomes. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2014;10:391–402.Search in Google Scholar

[92] Molina G, Holguin E, Teran E. Oral ambroxol supplement in pregnant women induces fetal lung maturation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;191:2177; author reply 8.Search in Google Scholar

[93] Newnham JP. Is prenatal glucocorticoid administration another origin of adult disease? Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol. 2001;28:957–61.Search in Google Scholar

[94] Newnham JP, Moss TJ, Padbury JF, Willet KE, Ikegami M, Ervin MG, et al. The interactive effects of endotoxin with prenatal glucocorticoids on short-term lung function in sheep. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;185:190–7.Search in Google Scholar

[95] NIH. Antenatal corticosteroids revisited: repeat courses-National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement, August 17–18, 2000. Obstet Gynecol. 2001;98:144–50.Search in Google Scholar

[96] Niwa F, Kawai M, Kanazawa H, Iwanaga K, Matsukura T, Shibata M, et al. Limited response to CRH stimulation tests at two weeks of age in preterm infants born at less than 30 weeks of gestational age. Clin Endocrinol. 2012;78:724–9.Search in Google Scholar

[97] Nowak D, Antczak A, Krol M, Bialasiewicz P, Pietras T. Antioxidant properties of Ambroxol. Free Radic Biol Med. 1994;16:517–22.Search in Google Scholar

[98] Ohler F. Rekombinanter humaner Keratinozytenwachstumsfaktor als Alternative zu Glukokortikoiden: spezifische Effekte auf Surfactantstatus und Leberphospholipide in neugeborenen Ratten. University Tübingen; 2010.Search in Google Scholar

[99] Ottonello L, Arduino N, Bertolotto M, Dapino P, Mancini M, Dallegri F. In vitro inhibition of human neutrophil histotoxicity by ambroxol: evidence for a multistep mechanism. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;140:736–42.Search in Google Scholar

[100] Paleari D, Rossi GA, Nicolini G, Olivieri D. Ambroxol: a multifaceted molecule with additional therapeutic potentials in respiratory disorders of childhood. Expert Opin Drug Discov. 2011;6:1203–14.Search in Google Scholar

[101] Panos RJ, Bak PM, Simonet WS, Rubin JS, Smith LJ. Intratracheal instillation of keratinocyte growth factor decreases hyperoxia-induced mortality in rats. J Clin Invest. 1995;96:2026–33.Search in Google Scholar

[102] Peaceman AM, Bajaj K, Kumar P, Grobman WA. The interval between a single course of antenatal steroids and delivery and its association with neonatal outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;193:1165–9.Search in Google Scholar

[103] Pei L, Leblanc M, Barish G, Atkins A, Nofsinger R, Whyte J, et al. Thyroid hormone receptor repression is linked to type I pneumocyte-associated respiratory distress syndrome. Nat Med. 2011;17:1466–72.Search in Google Scholar

[104] Pfeifer S, Zissel G, Kienast K, Muller-Quernheim J. Reduction of cytokine release of blood and bronchoalveolar mononuclear cells by ambroxol. Eur J Med Res. 1997; 2:129–32.Search in Google Scholar

[105] Pinto Mde L, Rodrigues P, Coelho AC, Pires Mdos A, dos Santos DL, Goncalves C, et al. Prenatal administration of vitamin A alters pulmonary and plasma levels of vascular endothelial growth factor in the developing mouse. Int J Exp Pathol. 2007;88:393–401.Search in Google Scholar

[106] Practice. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 402: Antenatal corticosteroid therapy for fetal maturation. Obstet Gynecol. 2008;111:805–7.Search in Google Scholar

[107] Practice CoO. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 475: Antenatal corticosteroid therapy for fetal maturation. Obstet Gynecol. 2011;117:422–4.Search in Google Scholar

[108] Prince LS, Okoh VO, Moninger TO, Matalon S. Lipopolysaccharide increases alveolar type II cell number in fetal mouse lungs through Toll-like receptor 4 and NF-kappaB. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2004;287:L999–1006.Search in Google Scholar

[109] Puschmann S, Engelhorn R. [Pharmacological study on the bromhexine metabolite ambroxol (author’s transl)]. Arzneimittel-Forschung. 1978;28:889–98.Search in Google Scholar

[110] Roberts D, Dalziel S. Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;3:CD004454.Search in Google Scholar

[111] Roberts D. Antenatal corticosteroids to reduce neonatal morbidity and mortality. Green Top Guidline No. 7. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2010:1–13.Search in Google Scholar

[112] Robertson B. Corticosteroids and surfactant for prevention of neonatal RDS. Ann Med. 1993;25:285–8.Search in Google Scholar

[113] Romaguera J, Reyes G, Caiseda D, Wallach RC, Adamsons K. Acceleration of fetal maturation with intra-amniotic thyroxine in the presence of maternal malignancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1990;69:229–34.Search in Google Scholar

[114] Ruttenstock EM, Doi T, Dingemann J, Puri P. Prenatal administration of retinoic acid upregulates connective tissue growth factor in the nitrofen CDH model. Pediatr Surg Int. 2011;27:573–7.Search in Google Scholar

[115] Salzer H, Weidinger H, Simbruner G, Vytiska-Binstorfer E. [Ambroxol versus betamethasone for stimulating antepartal lung maturity-a multicenter study]. Z Geburtsh Perinatol. 1986;190:49–59.Search in Google Scholar

[116] Schaffer L, Luzi F, Burkhardt T, Rauh M, Beinder E. Antenatal betamethasone administration alters stress physiology in healthy neonates. Obstet Gynecol. 2009;113:1082–8.Search in Google Scholar

[117] Schellenberg JC. The development of connective tissue and its role in pulmonary mechanics. In: Johnston B, Gluckman PD, editors. Respiratory control and lung development in the fetus newborn. Ithaca, New York: Perinatology Press; 1986. p. 3–62.Search in Google Scholar

[118] Schmeckebier S, Mauritz C, Katsirntaki K, Sgodda M, Puppe V, Duerr J, et al. Keratinocyte growth factor and dexamethasone plus elevated cAMP levels synergistically support pluripotent stem cell differentiation into alveolar epithelial type II cells. Tissue Eng Pt A. 2013;19:938–51.Search in Google Scholar

[119] Schmidt AF, Goncalves FL, Regis AC, Gallindo RM, Sbragia L. Prenatal retinoic acid improves lung vascularization and VEGF expression in CDH rat. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;207:76e25–32.Search in Google Scholar

[120] Schuger L, Varani J, Mitra R, Jr., Gilbride K. Retinoic acid stimulates mouse lung development by a mechanism involving epithelial-mesenchymal interaction and regulation of epidermal growth factor receptors. Dev Biol. 1993;159:462–73.Search in Google Scholar

[121] Schulz M, Hammerlein A, Hinkel U, Weis G, Gillissen A. Safety and usage pattern of an over-the-counter ambroxol cough syrup: a community pharmacy-based cohort study. Int J Clin Pharm Th. 2006;44:409–21.Search in Google Scholar

[122] Seckl JR, Cleasby M, Nyirenda MJ. Glucocorticoids, 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and fetal programming. Kidney Int. 2000;57:1412–7.Search in Google Scholar

[123] Seckl JR, Walker BR. Minireview: 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1- a tissue-specific amplifier of glucocorticoid action. Endocrinology 2001;142:1371–6.Search in Google Scholar

[124] Seckl JR. Prenatal glucocorticoids and long-term programming. Eur J Endocrinol. 2004;151(Suppl 3):U49–62.Search in Google Scholar

[125] Seckl JR, Meaney MJ. Glucocorticoid “programming” and PTSD risk. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006;1071:351–78.Search in Google Scholar

[126] Seckl JR, Holmes MC. Mechanisms of disease: glucocorticoids, their placental metabolism and fetal ‘programming’ of adult pathophysiology. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2007;3:479–88.Search in Google Scholar

[127] Seckl JR. Glucocorticoids, developmental ‘programming’ and the risk of affective dysfunction. Prog Brain Res. 2008;167:17–34.Search in Google Scholar

[128] Seifart C, Clostermann U, Seifart U, Muller B, Vogelmeier C, von Wichert P, et al. Cell-specific modulation of surfactant proteins by ambroxol treatment. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2005;203:27–35.Search in Google Scholar

[129] Sekine K, Ohuchi H, Fujiwara M, Yamasaki M, Yoshizawa T, Sato T, et al. Fgf10 is essential for limb and lung formation. Nat Genet. 1999;21:138–41.Search in Google Scholar

[130] Shinkai M, Shinkai T, Montedonico S, Puri P. Effect of VEGF on the branching morphogenesis of normal and nitrofen-induced hypoplastic fetal rat lung explants. J Pediatr Surg. 2006;41:781–6.Search in Google Scholar

[131] Sinclair JC. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of antenatal corticosteroid for the prevention of respiratory distress syndrome: discussion. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;173:335–44.Search in Google Scholar

[132] Sotiriadis A, Makrydimas G, Papatheodorou S, Ioannidis JP. Corticosteroids for preventing neonatal respiratory morbidity after elective caesarean section at term. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009:CD006614.Search in Google Scholar

[133] Stettner S, Ledwozyw A. The effect of Ambroxol on bleomycin-induced changes in phospholipid composition of rat lung surfactant. Acta Physiol Hung. 1995;83:181–7.Search in Google Scholar

[134] Su X, Wang L, Song Y, Bai C. Inhibition of inflammatory responses by ambroxol, a mucolytic agent, in a murine model of acute lung injury induced by lipopolysaccharide. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30:133–40.Search in Google Scholar

[135] Sun B, Rider E, Ikegami M, Jobe A. Antenatal ambroxol effects on surfactant pool size and postnatal lung function in preterm ventilated rabbits. Biol Neonate. 1992;62:55–62.Search in Google Scholar

[136] Sweet DG, Carnielli V, Greisen G, Hallman M, Ozek E, Plavka R, et al. European consensus guidelines on the management of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome in preterm infants–2013 update. Neonatology. 2013;103:353–68.Search in Google Scholar

[137] Tropea K, Christou H. Current pharmacologic approaches for prevention and treatment of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Int J Pediatr. 2012;2012:598606.Search in Google Scholar

[138] van den Broek N, Dou L, Othman M, Neilson JP, Gates S, Gulmezoglu AM. Vitamin A supplementation during pregnancy for maternal and newborn outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010:CD008666.Search in Google Scholar

[139] Veness-Meehan KA, Pierce RA, Moats-Staats BM, Stiles AD. Retinoic acid attenuates O2-induced inhibition of lung septation. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2002;283:L971–80.Search in Google Scholar

[140] Ware LB, Matthay MA. Keratinocyte and hepatocyte growth factors in the lung: roles in lung development, inflammation, and repair. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2002;282:L924–40.Search in Google Scholar

[141] Wauer RR, Schmalisch G, Menzel K, Schroder M, Muller K, Tiller R, et al. The antenatal use of ambroxol (bromhexine metabolite VIII) to prevent hyaline membrane disease: a controlled double-blind study. Int J Biol Res Preg. 1982;3:84–91.Search in Google Scholar

[142] Willet KE, Jobe AH, Ikegami M, Newnham J, Brennan S, Sly PD. Antenatal endotoxin and glucocorticoid effects on lung morphometry in preterm lambs. Pediatr Res. 2000;48:782–8.Search in Google Scholar

[143] Willet KE, Kramer BW, Kallapur SG, Ikegami M, Newnham JP, Moss TJ, et al. Intra-amniotic injection of IL-1 induces inflammation and maturation in fetal sheep lung. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2002;282:L411–20.Search in Google Scholar

[144] Witt A, Berger A, Gruber CJ, Petricevic L, Apfalter P, Husslein P. IL-8 concentrations in maternal serum, amniotic fluid and cord blood in relation to different pathogens within the amniotic cavity. J Perinat Med. 2005;33:22–6.Search in Google Scholar

[145] Wolff F, Ponnath H, Wiest W. [Induction of fetal lung maturation using ambroxol and betamethasone. Results of an open multicenter study]. Geburtsh Frauenheilk. 1987;47:19–25.Search in Google Scholar

[146] Yano T, Deterding RR, Simonet WS, Shannon JM, Mason RJ. Keratinocyte growth factor reduces lung damage due to acid instillation in rats. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1996;15:433–42.Search in Google Scholar

[147] Yin Y, Wang F, Ornitz DM. Mesothelial- and epithelial-derived FGF9 have distinct functions in the regulation of lung development. Development. 2011;138:3169–77.Search in Google Scholar

[148] Yinon Y, Haas J, Mazaki-Tovi S, Lapidot N, Mazkereth R, Hourvitz A, et al. Should patients with documented fetal lung immaturity after 34 weeks of gestation be treated with steroids? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;207:222 e1–4.Search in Google Scholar

[149] Yuksel H, Yilmaz O, Baytur YB, Ozbilgin K. Prenatal administration of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor increases mesenchymal vascular endothelial growth factor expression and maturation in fetal rat lung. Exp Lung Res. 2008;34:550–8.Search in Google Scholar

[150] Zhang ZQ, Wu QQ, Huang XM, Lu H. Prevention of respiratory distress syndrome in preterm infants by antenatal ambroxol: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Perinatol. 2012;30;529–36.Search in Google Scholar