On causativity in Latin
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Roland Hoffmann
Abstract
Since causativity is either scarcely or not at all marked in Latin, most grammars and textbooks do not mention this verbal category. Nevertheless, from a functional point of view, there are many different means of causative constructions (CCs) in Latin, especially upon examination of analytical forms. After some methodological remarks in Section 1, the focus of Section 2 is a morphosyntactic survey of CCs in Latin. Apart from those cases that are not marked (Caesar … pontem rescidit, Gal. 4.19.4) there is a large group of lexical causatives (with subclasses in regard to the base verb), and even relics of a morphological causative which can be seen in the –facere/–ficere type. Additionally, there is no doubt that there are many analytical causatives. Within the latter group, which is the largest and most productive type of causative construction, the base verb appears not only embedded in different forms (as a predicative participle or an adjective, an infinitive, a gerund, a verb in subjunctive form within an ut-clause), but also as a noun of a functional verb construction (afficere+abl.; facere/dare/adferre+acc.). If it is possible to have “two or more causative mechanisms” in any given language, they “always have different meanings” (Dixon 2000. A typology of causatives. In R. M. W. Dixon & A. Y. Aikhenvald (eds.), Changing valency. Case studies in transitivity, 30–83. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 33). This typological generalization can be seen in the syntactic and the semantic behavior of the single analytical causative constructions. The syntactic analysis of Section 3 shows if there are restrictions in relation to the Latin base verbs, i. e. whether transitive, intransitive or ditransitive verbs are possible, the valency status of the causee, to what extent the possibility of passivizing the CCs is available for the different types of causative constructions, and if so-called second causatives are possible. In the semantic analysis in Section 4, different parameters, like control and dynamicity, and semantic features like animateness will be applied with regard to the causer, the base verb and the whole construction. In the last instance, it will be explored to what extent the different semantic types of causatives, namely direct versus indirect and permissive versus declarative causatives, can be found in Latin. The conclusion in Section 5 will summarize the main results. A causative basically consists of two different states of affairs which are in a causal relation to each other. In the following, we will use the expression causative construction (hereafter, CC) as a functional cover term with a broader meaning which will also include the so-called factitive (Biville 1995. Énoncés factitifs en latin: syntaxe et sémantique. In D. Longrée (ed.), De usu, 31–44. Louvain-la-Neuve: Peeters; Kulikov 2001. Causatives. In M. Haspelmath, E. König, W. Oesterreicher & W. Raible (eds.), Language typology and language universals. An international handbook. Vol. 2, 886–898. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter). Such a CC acts just like passive and reflexive voice, and is in this way a derived predicate structure (Dik 1997b. The theory of functional grammar. Part 2: Complex and derived constructions. Ed. by K. Hengeveld. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 9), or more precisely: an incorporating structure (Von Stechow 1993. Die Aufgaben der Syntax. In J. Jacobs, A. v. Stechow, W. Sternefeld, T. Vennemann & H. E. Wiegand (eds.), Syntax, vol. 1: 1–88. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 30), which changes the syntactic and semantic form of the basic predication. Syntactically, there will be regular valency increase, because one argument that causes the basic predication, whose nucleus is the base verb (BV), will be added secondarily. This new argument will fill the subject slot, and the former subject of the BV has to take over a new position. The morphologically modified BV will be referred to as the causative verb (CV), which is then the nucleus of the CC. For example assuefacere is the CV to the BV assuescere.
Acknowledgment
This article goes back to a paper that was held at the 13th International Colloquium on Latin Linguistics in Brussels in April 2005. It has been updated for this publication, and especially the papers from the book “La causativité en latin”, edited by B. Bortolussi and P. Lecaudé (2014) have been taken into account. I thank the participants of the colloquium, for example Prof. C. Lehmann and Prof. H. Fugier, as well as the later anonymous readers for their critical comments. Further thanks go to Abby Russell (BA in Linguistics and current MA American Studies student at Johannes Gutenberg-University in Mainz) from West Virginia, USA, who as a native speaker corrected the final English version.
Appendix: abbreviations
- BV
base verb
- CC
causative construction
- CR
causer
- CS
causee
- CV
causative verb
- SCL
Standard Classical Latin
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