Learning to improve grammar instruction through comprehensive analysis of past research
-
Andrew Schenck
Abstract
Holistic study of grammar instruction is needed not only to establish the effectiveness of pedagogical techniques, but to determine when, and in what way, they should be utilized. Within a meta-analysis of 33 experimental studies, external stimuli impacting the language learner (scope of instruction, input or output enhancement, frequency of treatment, and EFL/ESL context) were concomitantly considered alongside cognitive factors (grammatical complexity and language proficiency). Results of linear regression revealed that the selected causal factors collectively explain more than 40 % of variability in the effectiveness of pedagogical techniques for English grammar production. Study further suggests that grammar emphasis with a limited scope may be more effective; input enhancement may be more effective with grammatical features that are less essential for communication (redundant, systematic, and less salient features such as past -ed); output enhancement may be more effective with grammatical features that have many salient lexical forms (e. g., past irregular); and learners in EFL contexts can benefit more from grammar instruction.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the editor, Leah Roberts, for her assistance throughout the review process. Her quick replies and timely feedback were very helpful. I would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their careful consideration and insightful comments that helped to improve this paper.
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Appendix A
Description of treatment scope and assessment.
| Authors | Instructional scope | Description of assessment |
|---|---|---|
| Bitchener and Knoch (2008) | “a” first/“the” subsequent mention | Written picture descriptions (nouns provided) – 30 minutes |
| Muranoi (1996) | Overgeneralization of “the” and zero article | An oral story description task, an oral picture description task, a written picture description task and a grammaticality judgment task |
| Bitchener (2008) | “a” first/“the” subsequent mention | Picture descriptions – 3 writing tasks, 30 minute time limit each |
| Sheen (2010) | Definite and indefinite articles | Speed dictation test (Time Pressured), 4 sequential pictures and write a story (no info about time) – 17 item error correction test |
| Sheen (2008) | “a” first/“the” subsequent mention | Speed dictation test (Time Pressured), 4 sequential pictures and write a story (no info about time) – 17 item error correction test |
| Sheen (2007) | “a” first/“the” subsequent mention | Speed dictation test (Time Pressured), 4 sequential pictures and write a story (no info about time) – 17 item error correction test |
| Muranoi (2000) | Indefinite article (specially one carrying new information) | Story descriptions (30 seconds to rehearse and 90 seconds to speak) – Picture description (same time limit) – GJ, 16 sentences, no time limit |
| Ellis et al. (2008) | “a” first/“the” subsequent mention | Narrative writing about picture sequence and Sheen’s error correction test |
| Bitchener and Knoch (2009b) | “a” first/“the” subsequent mention | Picture description of pictures (at the beach), 30 minutes |
| Bitchener et al. (2005) | Definite Article and Past Tense | 4 essays, 250 words (45 minutes given) |
| Sheen et al. (2009) | “a” first/“the” subsequent mention | Narrative writing test – students write about 4 sequential pictures – 15–20 minutes |
| Bitchener and Knoch (2010a) | “a” first/“the” subsequent mention | Writing about a picture (picture of social gathering) – 30 minutes |
| Bitchener and Knoch (2009a) | “a” first/“the” subsequent mention | Writing about a picture (e. g., picnic) – 30 minutes |
| Bitchener and Knoch (2010b) | “a” first/“the” subsequent mention | Writing about a picture (e. g., picnic) – 30 minutes |
| Shintani and Ellis (2013) | “a” first/“the” subsequent mention | Oral task production test |
| Shintani and Ellis (2011) | Plural -s | Writing target like expressions by Pica (20 minutes) – composition about pictures – low proficiency students and severe load and implicit knowledge |
| Yang and Lyster (2010) | Past –ed, Past irregular | Immediate response to oral crazy beach party (read passage and give back) – 9 tokens regular 17 irregular tokens/no planning after word cues |
| Benati (2005) | Past -ed | Two versions of the tests were designed, one interpretation task and one written production task, (writing not spontaneous) – real time comprehension |
| Ellis et al. (2006) | Past regular -ed | Oral Imitation – repeat sentence they think is correct |
| Izumi and Izumi (2004) | OPREP relative clause | Sentence combination, 15 seconds each |
| Izumi (2002) | OPREP relative clause | Sentence combination (18 items in 15 minutes), picture cued sentence completion (12 items 15 seconds), interpretation and grammaticality judgment (decide which picture is correct 15 seconds) |
| Qin (2008) | Passive | Production task – Complete Sentences and recreate a 100 word story in writing |
| Uludag and VanPatten (2012) | Passive | 10 minute sentence completion/Students listen and construct a three sentence passage |
| Williams and Evans (1998) | Passive | 7–12 minutes for each test, rapid – Sentence completion |
| Mackey and Philp (1998) | Questions | Dyads spot the differences between their pictures by orally asking questions (15–20 minutes) (each had picture with 10 differences) |
| White et al. (1991) | Yes/No Questions – Wh Question formation | Students asked questions until they could match pictures on their cards with interlocutor |
| Mackey (2006) | Past tense, Plurals, Questions | Shown pictures and videos (timed test) and asked questions with contexts of grammatical feature |
| McDonough and Mackey (2008) | Questions | Oral picture difference tasks, story completion tasks, map tasks, and interviewing activities |
| Spada et al. (2005) | Possessive determiner and questions | Oral production/written production – write 15 questions about what a reporter would ask |
| Subramaniam and Khan (2013) | Quantifiers | Two 350 word narratives in 2 hours (an unforgettable experience in my life |
| Révész (2009) | Past progressive | Oral picture description Task |
| Kubota (1997) | Phrasal verb | Test B – translation test 20 minutes – 10 test items – translate 10 sentences into English |
Appendix B
Summary of studies.
| Number of studies | Number of groups | Mean effect size | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grammatical feature | |||
| Article | 15 | 50 | 1.3369 |
| Past -ed | 3 | 14 | 2.3419 |
| Past irregular | 2 | 16 | 4.4220 |
| Past | 2 | 7 | −0.5949 |
| Passive | 3 | 8 | 2.2538 |
| Relative clause | 2 | 5 | 1.0577 |
| Plural -s | 2 | 5 | 1.8037 |
| Phrasal verb | 1 | 3 | 0.8739 |
| Questions | 5 | 12 | 1.1201 |
| Possessive determiner | 1 | 2 | 1.5810 |
| Quantifiers | 1 | 2 | 1.0477 |
| Participial adjective | 1 | 2 | 1.3755 |
| Context | |||
| EFL | 12 | 55 | 2.7157 |
| ESL | 21 | 75 | 1.0318 |
| Proficiency level | |||
| Beginner | 4 | 11 | 2.3144 |
| Intermediate | 16 | 56 | 1.0146 |
| Advanced | 2 | 6 | 1.1548 |
| Type of instruction | |||
| Input enhancement | 12 | 29 | 1.8410 |
| Output enhancement | 28 | 90 | 1.6723 |
Appendix C
Correlations of research variables to effect size.
| Regression summary | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model | R | R square | Adjusted R square | Std. error of the estimate |
| 1 | 0.659 | 0.435 | 0.381 | 0.91484 |
| ANOVA | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model | Sum of squares | df | Mean square | F | Sig. | |
| 1 | Regression | 40.556 | 6 | 6.759 | 8.076 | 0.000 |
| Residual | 52.727 | 63 | 0.837 | |||
| Total | 93.283 | 69 | ||||
| Model | Unstandardized coefficients | Standardized coefficients | t | Sig. | Collinearity statistics | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B | Std. error | Beta | Tolerance | VIF | ||||
| 1 | (Constant) | 3.022 | 0.893 | 3.386 | 0.001 | |||
| Scope of instruction | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.251 | 1.129 | 0.263 | 0.181 | 5.511 | |
| Treatment frequency | −0.568 | 0.136 | −0.609 | −4.179 | 0.000 | 0.423 | 2.365 | |
| Input or output | −0.035 | 0.384 | −0.011 | −0.091 | 0.928 | 0.663 | 1.508 | |
| EFL or ESL | 0.822 | 0.436 | 0.249 | 1.885 | 0.064 | 0.513 | 1.950 | |
| Proficiency | 0.315 | 0.584 | 0.119 | 0.539 | 0.592 | 0.183 | 5.453 | |
| Grammatical complexity | −0.173 | 0.098 | −0.208 | −1.768 | 0.082 | 0.648 | 1.544 | |
Note: Dependent Variable: Pretest/Posttest Effect Size.
© 2017 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- The pedagogical relevance of processing instruction in second language idiom acquisition
- Energy conservation: A theory of L2 ultimate attainment
- Learning to improve grammar instruction through comprehensive analysis of past research
- Impacts of task complexity on the development of L2 oral performance over time
Artikel in diesem Heft
- Frontmatter
- The pedagogical relevance of processing instruction in second language idiom acquisition
- Energy conservation: A theory of L2 ultimate attainment
- Learning to improve grammar instruction through comprehensive analysis of past research
- Impacts of task complexity on the development of L2 oral performance over time
