The influence of welding modes on metallic structures processed through WAAM
-
Kumar Kanishka
and
Bappa Acherjee
Abstract
Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) has emerged as a versatile and cost-effective technique for fabricating complex, large-scale components with enhanced material flexibility. The bead profile, like width, height, and penetration, is critical in WAAM fabrication, influencing the quality and performance of the final component. Consistent and precise profiles are essential for accurate layering and material deposition in complex 3D structures. Various parameters, such as current, voltage, deposition rate, interpass temperature, and welding mode, impact deposit quality in WAAM. This study focuses on implementing a controlled heat input deposition approach, utilizing various welding modes: Control Weld (classic MIG/MAG), Speed Weld (voltage-controlled pulsed arc), Vari Weld (current-controlled pulsed arc), Rapid Weld (high-capacity spray arc), Root Weld (energy-reduced short arc), and Fine Weld (energy-reduced, current-controlled short arc). The study scrutinizes the impact of altering the welding mode on bead profile, bead quality, macroscopic morphology, microstructure, and mechanical properties in single-bead WAAM structures.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Central Instrumentation Facility (CIF) of BIT Mesra, Ranchi, India, for the testing carried out in this work.
-
Research ethics: The authors know the purpose, benefits, and funding behind this study.
-
Informed consent: Not applicable.
-
Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission. Kumar Kanishka: investigation, formal analysis, writing – original draft. Bappa Acherjee: conceptualization, methodology, writing – review & editing, supervision.
-
Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: None declared.
-
Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
-
Research funding: No funding has been received for conducting this study but one of the authors (B.A.) would like to acknowledge partial financial support from ANRF/SERB, DST (India) sponsored projects (CRG/2021/ 001066, Dt. 03-03-2022), (CRG/2022/004102, Dt. 14-02-2023) and (CRG/2023/0003537, Dt. 23-02-2024). These funds were used for developing experimental infrastructure and testing facilities, which were utilized to conduct the experiments presented in this study.
-
Data availability: All the data generated or anlyzed during this study are included in this paper. The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at this time as the data also forms part of an ongoing study.
References
1. Yi, H.; Jia, L.; Ding, J.; Li, H. Achieving Material Diversity in Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing: Leaping from Alloys to Composites via Wire Innovation. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 2024, 194, 104103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2023.104103.Search in Google Scholar
2. Kanishka, K.; Acherjee, B. A Systematic Review of Additive Manufacturing-Based Remanufacturing Techniques for Component Repair and Restoration. J. Manuf. Process. 2023, 89, 220–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.01.034.Search in Google Scholar
3. Pattanayak, S.; Sahoo, S. K. Gas Metal Arc Welding Based Additive Manufacturing – A Review. CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol. 2021, 33, 398–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirpj.2021.04.010.Search in Google Scholar
4. Kanishka, K.; Acherjee, B. Revolutionizing Manufacturing: A Comprehensive Overview of Additive Manufacturing Processes, Materials, Developments, and Challenges. J. Manuf. Process. 2023, 107, 574–619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.10.024.Search in Google Scholar
5. Ding, J.; Colegrove, P.; Mehnen, J.; Ganguly, S.; Almeida, P. S.; Wang, F.; Williams, S. Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of Wire and Arc Additive Layer Manufacturing Process on Large Multi-Layer Parts. Comput. Mater. Sci. 2011, 50, 3315–3322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2011.06.023.Search in Google Scholar
6. Xiong, J.; Lei, Y.; Chen, H.; Zhang, G. Fabrication of Inclined Thin-Walled Parts in Multi-Layer Single-Pass GMAW-Based Additive Manufacturing with Flat Position Deposition. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2017, 240, 397–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.10.019.Search in Google Scholar
7. Yang, D.; Wang, G.; Zhang, G. Thermal Analysis for Single-Pass Multi-Layer GMAW Based Additive Manufacturing Using Infrared Thermography. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2017, 244, 215–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.01.024.Search in Google Scholar
8. Panchagnula, J. S.; Simhambhatla, S. Manufacture of Complex Thin-Walled Metallic Objects Using Weld-Deposition Based Additive Manufacturing. Robot. Comput. Integr. Manuf. 2018, 49, 194–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcim.2017.06.003.Search in Google Scholar
9. Le, V. T.; Mai, D. S.; Paris, H. Influences of the Compressed Dry Air-Based Active Cooling on External and Internal Qualities of Wire-Arc Additive Manufactured Thin-Walled SS308L Components. J. Manuf. Process. 2021, 62, 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.11.046.Search in Google Scholar
10. Wang, P.; Zhang, H.; Zhu, H.; Li, Q.; Feng, M. Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing of AZ31 Magnesium Alloy Fabricated by Cold Metal Transfer Heat Source: Processing, Microstructure, and Mechanical Behavior. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2021, 288, 116895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116895.Search in Google Scholar
11. Nagasai, B. P.; Malarvizhi, S.; Balasubramanian, V. Effect of Welding Processes on Mechanical and Metallurgical Characteristics of Carbon Steel Cylindrical Components Made by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) Technique. CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol. 2022, 36, 100–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirpj.2021.11.005.Search in Google Scholar
12. Badoniya, P.; Srivastava, M.; Jain, P. K.; Rathee, S. Parametric Investigation on Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of ER70S-6 Low-Carbon Steel for Fabrication of Thick-Walled Parts. J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 2023, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2023.2275823.Search in Google Scholar
13. Wu, B.; Pan, Z.; Ding, D.; Cuiuri, D.; Li, H.; Xu, J.; Norrish, J. A Review of the Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Metals: Properties, Defects and Quality Improvement. J. Manuf. Process. 2018, 35, 127–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.08.001.Search in Google Scholar
14. Wang, L.; Xue, J.; Wang, Q. Correlation Between Arc Mode, Microstructure, and Mechanical Properties During Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of 316L Stainless Steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 2019, 751, 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.02.078.Search in Google Scholar
15. Pang, J.; Hu, S.; Shen, J.; Wang, P.; Liang, Y. Arc Characteristics and Metal Transfer Behavior of CMT+ P Welding Process. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2016, 238, 212–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.07.033.Search in Google Scholar
16. Wang, P.; Hu, S. S.; Shen, J. Q.; Liang, Y. Microstructure and Mechanical Behaviour of Cold Metal Transfer Welded Mg/Al Dissimilar Joint Using Wire AZ31 as Filler Metal. Sci. Technol. Weld. Join. 2017, 22, 353–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2016.1245240.Search in Google Scholar
17. Wang, P.; Zhang, H.; Hu, S.; Yin, F.; Ma, S. Microstructure and Mechanical Behaviour of CMT-Welded Mg/Al Dissimilar Joint Using Inconel 625 as Filler Metal. Sci. Technol. Weld. Join. 2019, 25, 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2019.1603186.Search in Google Scholar
18. Hackenhaar, W.; Mazzaferro, J. A.; Mazzaferro, C. C.; Grossi, N.; Campatelli, G. Effects of Different WAAM Current Deposition Modes on the Mechanical Properties of AISI H13 Tool Steel. Weld. World 2022, 66, 2259–2269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-022-01342-0.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
19. Jiangang, P.; Bo, Y.; Jinguo, G.; Liang, Z.; Hao, L.; Hao, L. Influence of Arc Mode on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 5356 Aluminum Alloy Fabricated by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2022, 20, 1893–1907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.08.005.Search in Google Scholar
20. Chen, F.; Cai, X.; Dong, B.; Lin, S. Effect of Process Modes on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of CMT Wire Arc Additive Manufactured WE43 Magnesium Alloy. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2023, 27, 2089–2101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.10.063.Search in Google Scholar
21. Hardness, A. B. Standard Test Method for Microindentation Hardness of Materials; ASTM Comm: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 1999. https://tajhizkala.ir/doc/ASTM/ASTM%20E384__09.pdf (accessed 2024-04-29).Search in Google Scholar
22. ISO, 21920-2:2021. Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) – Surface Texture: Profile – Part 2: Terms, Definitions and Surface Texture Parameters, 2021. https://www.iso.org/standard/72226.html (accessed 2024-04-29).Search in Google Scholar
23. Lehto, P.; Romanoff, J.; Remes, H.; Sarikka, T. Characterisation of Local Grain Size Variation of Welded Structural Steel. Weld. World 2016, 60, 673–688. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-016-0318-8.Search in Google Scholar
24. Panicker, S.; Nagarajan, H. P.; Tuominen, J.; Patnamsetty, M.; Coatanéa, E.; Haapala, K. R. Investigation of Thermal Influence on Weld Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing of Steels. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 2022, 853, 143690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2022.143690.Search in Google Scholar
© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Editorial
- 5th International Conference on Processing and Characterization of Materials 2023 (ICPCM 2023)
- Original Papers
- Experimental studies on coal mine over-burden incorporated concrete as a sustainable substitute for fine aggregate in concrete construction
- A complex impedance spectroscopy study on PVDF/PANI/CoFe2O4 composites
- Optimizing electrical properties and efficiency of copper-doped CdS and CdTe solar cells through advanced ETL and HTL integration: a comprehensive experimental and numerical study
- Synthesis and characterization of hydroxyapatite from Ariidea fish bone as reinforcement material for (chios mastic gum: papyrus vaccine pollen) bio composite bony scaffold
- Optimization of the process parameter of lean-grade self-reducing pellets by surface response modelling
- From raw materials to functional material: synthesis and piezoelectric characterization of PIN–PT binary relaxor material
- Effect of ball milling on bulk MoS2 and the development of Al–MoS2 nanocomposites by powder metallurgy route
- Effect of beeswax on the physico-mechanical properties of poly (butylene adipate terephthalate)/poly lactic acid blend films
- Effect of Y2O3, TiO2, ZrO2 dispersion on oxidation resistance of W–Ni–Nb–Mo alloys
- Multifunctional characterisation of pressureless sintered Al2O3 –CaTiO3 nanocomposite
- Silicon–carbon superhydrophobic nano-structure for next generation semiconductor industry
- Interrelation between mechanical and electromagnetic radiation emission parameters with variable notch-width ratios under tensile fracture in silicon steel
- Effect of tool rotation and welding speed on microstructural and mechanical properties of dissimilar AA6061-T6 and AA5083-H12 joint in friction stir welding
- Effect of bentonite and molasses binder content on physical and mechanical properties of green and fired mill scale pellets
- FA-GGBFS based geopolymer concrete incorporating CMRW and SS as fine and coarse aggregates
- Characteristic study of intra woven green fibers for structural application
- An experimental investigation by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy for the study of mechanism of copper electrodeposition from an acidic bath
- Bažant-Le-Kirane Paradox of fatigue failure in engineering materials
- Thermal modeling and analysis of laser transmission welding of polypropylene: process mechanics and parameters
- The influence of welding modes on metallic structures processed through WAAM
- Ultrasonic metal welding of Al/Cu joints with Ni coating: parametric effects on joint performance and microstructural modifications
- News
- DGM – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Materialkunde
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Editorial
- 5th International Conference on Processing and Characterization of Materials 2023 (ICPCM 2023)
- Original Papers
- Experimental studies on coal mine over-burden incorporated concrete as a sustainable substitute for fine aggregate in concrete construction
- A complex impedance spectroscopy study on PVDF/PANI/CoFe2O4 composites
- Optimizing electrical properties and efficiency of copper-doped CdS and CdTe solar cells through advanced ETL and HTL integration: a comprehensive experimental and numerical study
- Synthesis and characterization of hydroxyapatite from Ariidea fish bone as reinforcement material for (chios mastic gum: papyrus vaccine pollen) bio composite bony scaffold
- Optimization of the process parameter of lean-grade self-reducing pellets by surface response modelling
- From raw materials to functional material: synthesis and piezoelectric characterization of PIN–PT binary relaxor material
- Effect of ball milling on bulk MoS2 and the development of Al–MoS2 nanocomposites by powder metallurgy route
- Effect of beeswax on the physico-mechanical properties of poly (butylene adipate terephthalate)/poly lactic acid blend films
- Effect of Y2O3, TiO2, ZrO2 dispersion on oxidation resistance of W–Ni–Nb–Mo alloys
- Multifunctional characterisation of pressureless sintered Al2O3 –CaTiO3 nanocomposite
- Silicon–carbon superhydrophobic nano-structure for next generation semiconductor industry
- Interrelation between mechanical and electromagnetic radiation emission parameters with variable notch-width ratios under tensile fracture in silicon steel
- Effect of tool rotation and welding speed on microstructural and mechanical properties of dissimilar AA6061-T6 and AA5083-H12 joint in friction stir welding
- Effect of bentonite and molasses binder content on physical and mechanical properties of green and fired mill scale pellets
- FA-GGBFS based geopolymer concrete incorporating CMRW and SS as fine and coarse aggregates
- Characteristic study of intra woven green fibers for structural application
- An experimental investigation by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy for the study of mechanism of copper electrodeposition from an acidic bath
- Bažant-Le-Kirane Paradox of fatigue failure in engineering materials
- Thermal modeling and analysis of laser transmission welding of polypropylene: process mechanics and parameters
- The influence of welding modes on metallic structures processed through WAAM
- Ultrasonic metal welding of Al/Cu joints with Ni coating: parametric effects on joint performance and microstructural modifications
- News
- DGM – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Materialkunde
