Identifying self-regulated learning in chemistry classes – a good practice report

2.1 Self-Regulated Learning (SRL)

SRL in learning refers to metacognitive, motivational, and behavioral characteristics that indicate the active participation of learners in the learning process. This involves directing and monitoring one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions to achieve the learning goals. SRL encompasses the learners’ ability to act independently and manage their learning process. It also involves organizing the learning process and strategies (Cohen et al., 2022; Pintrich, 2004; Zimmerman, 2008). For instance, students exhibit SRL when they plan their time to prepare homework and use different learning strategies to prepare for a test.

Birenbaum (1997) suggested that SRL combines three learning-strategy categories: cognitive, meta-cognitive, and resource management. Cognitive skills include problem-solving abilities, critical thinking, database use, and selecting and processing relevant information. Meta-cognitive skills include applying learning strategies, self-esteem, and reflection. Resource management proficiency includes time management and managing the learning environment. SRL is an essential skill among high-school students since it affects their persistence and achievements (Zimmerman, 2013). Eidelman et al. (2019) developed and studied an online environment for teaching chemistry among high-school students in Israel, focusing on developing SRL skills after studying chemistry for three years. They found that four profiles of SRL align with the student’s achievements during the program, as measured by their matriculation exam scores in chemistry and their activity on the course website. Additional studies indicate that it is important to support the development of students’ SRL through the learning environment by providing help, formative assessment, feedback, and monitoring progress (Berglas-Shapiro et al., 2017; Roll et al., 2011).

In addition, SRL helps students take responsibility for their learning and makes them independent learners, which is important starting from elementary school. This is when students begin to develop their learning skills and habits in a supportive environment. It was suggested that children in elementary and preschool might be challenged by implementing complex SRL cognitive and metacognitive strategies (Paris & Newman, 1990). However, developing SRL at a young age has its advantages since children are more likely to change their habits during these crucial early years and are motivated to learn, which may fade over time (Hattie & Marsh, 1996).

SRL develops throughout childhood and adolescence (Winne, 1995), and the educational environment may influence its development (Dent & Koenka, 2016). A study on SRL in science education among middle-school students (7th grade) conducted by Berglas-Shapira and her colleagues (2017) found that explicit instruction regarding SRL was necessary. For example, in the context of “goal setting,” students did not necessarily know how to set goals for themselves, and this skill must be explicitly taught. The researchers emphasized that developing this skill is as essential as acquiring other cognitive skills, such as formulating a research question and interpreting graphs. Moreover, SRL is important in childhood, adolescence, and beyond. SRL skills are required for lifelong learning; the components of SRL provide thinking skill sets, such as flexible thinking and problem-solving, which are needed to compete in today’s changing job markets (Taranto & Buchanan, 2020).

2.2 Self-Regulated Teaching (SRT)

SRT is a teaching approach that emphasizes developing students’ self-regulatory skills. It involves teaching students how to set goals, monitor their progress, and adjust their learning strategies to achieve their goals. SRT also prepares students to regulate and control their emotions, attention, and motivation to optimize their learning. In preparing their students for SRT, teachers guide them to plan a specific task and promote their students’ self-regulation (Kramarski & Kohen, 2017). Teachers should demonstrate knowledge of how to teach SRL, whether in implementing SRT in their subject domain or regarding general pedagogical strategies for SRT (Kramarski & Heaysman, 2021). In other words, teachers’ professional vision, particularly the knowledge-based reasoning component, could be expanded to include their epistemic aims, ideals, and reliable processes for teaching content and SRT. Teachers’ SRT affects students’ cognitive and metacognitive processing as well as their subsequent learning performance. Therefore, regarding their SRL and SRT, teachers must adopt the same lifelong learning mindset that they advocate for students to ensure that these techniques are implemented in normative and productive ways (Greene, 2021).

In their SRT role, teachers proactively guide students in drawing from their personal experiences to perform upcoming tasks. SRT is a continuum of strategic instruction, specifically concerning the teacher’s role beyond its metacognitive and motivational elements. SRT can also be investigated as an overall process of strategic instruction measured on a continuum (Kramarski & Kohen, 2017).

6.1 The self-regulated learning dimensions and the “test yourself” questionnaire

Many studies that deal with self-regulation utilize self-reporting questionnaires. One questionnaire particularly suited for evaluating self-regulation in remote learning is the Online SRL Questionnaire (OSLQ), developed by Barnard et al. (2009). This questionnaire addresses six dimensions of self-regulation in learning: goal setting, environment structuring, task strategies, time management, help-seeking, and self-evaluation. Examples of aspects of the questionnaire relevant to online learning include the following:

1. Goal setting: Fixing goals for the short term (daily or weekly) and then for the long term (monthly or semesterly). Establishing standards for tasks by providing online lessons, establishing goals for organizing online learning, and maintaining high standards.

2. Environment structuring: choosing a learning environment with limited distractions. Unlike in-school learning, online learning usually occurs at home; therefore, choosing the right place within the home is important.

3. Task strategies: note-taking in online lessons, preparing for online lessons.

4. Time management: planning a schedule by time or by task prioritization.

5. Help-seeking: consulting with the teacher, friends, or the internet.

6. Self-evaluation: comparing learning experiences with classmates, asking yourself questions.

For the workshop, Barnard et al.’s questionnaire (2009) was converted into a “test yourself” questionnaire for the full questionnaire, see: https://stwis.org/l2r1ou

The questionnaire is based on a five-point Likert scale, from 1 – “Disagree” – to 5 – “Strongly Agree.” Likert scales give the same weight to each statement being tested, and within each theme, the scores can be summed to give an overall picture of that theme. Thus, in the converted questionnaire, the distribution of the respondents’ answers can provide a picture of the degree of students’ self-regulation across and within the different dimensions. Within each dimension, the closer the total score is to the highest possible score, the higher the student’s level of SRL. For example, the goal-setting dimension includes six statements; therefore, the highest possible score is 30 points. Thus, the closer the score is to 30, the higher the students’ degree of self-regulation within the goal-setting dimension, whereas the lower the score, the lower their self-regulation level in this dimension. However, concomitantly, the same student may have a high level of SRL in another dimension (e.g., environment structuring). The questionnaire thus facilitates assessing the dimensions in which the students require support to promote their SRL.

The questionnaire’s main limitation is that it contains only closed questions. In a previous study that integrated semi structured interviews and focused on students, additional aspects arose that pertained to task strategies, time management, and self-evaluation (Feldman-Maggor et al., 2022). For example, students who completed the online course used the course assignments to manage their time, determine their learning strategy, and evaluate themselves. The students explained that when they watch recorded lessons, they apply various active learning strategies, such as pausing the lecture when they do not understand something, taking notes, or returning to specific topics into which they want to delve deeper. By completing the questionnaire, students can evaluate their general level of SRL according to the dimensions. Still, in assessing their SRL in any specific field or subject, additional SRL attributes specific to that field and its learning methods might require further evaluation using other methods, such as teacher-student dialogue.

6.2 Support students’ time management

As alluded to earlier, one of the characteristics of self-regulation that affects success in online learning is resource management skills, including time management and environment structuring. According to Pintrich (2004), the behavior of learners stems from their SRL, and it is expressed, among other things, in their degree of perseverance in learning. Time management is one factor that best predicts online learning success (Feldman-Maggor et al., 2022). One study dealing with online learning found that poor time management can explain the dropout of about 51 % of all withdrawals from online courses. Thus, it is advisable to assist learners in developing effective time management skills (Nawrot & Doucet, 2014).

In the workshop, I demonstrated how teachers could support students’ time management, one of the most significant aspects of SRL in online learning. This includes, for example, stressing the importance of guiding students to create a schedule for themselves and requiring this task during a lesson or homework. In creating such a schedule, it is recommended to begin with the primary school schedule and all regular weekly activities. Such activities include extra-curricular classes, volunteering, youth movement participation, family commitments, and even social gatherings. Then, students should determine where time is available for studying, practicing, completing homework, and reviewing the material. The first week of the schedule will be a trial run since students may have difficulty estimating the time required for each activity. However, it is possible to create a more accurate schedule by the following week based on the first week’s experience. It is important that the schedule also includes time for leisure and breaks, as well as the main tasks assigned for each day. It is recommended that all students print out the schedule and place it somewhere highly visible to them to remind them of their obligations throughout the week. Schedule templates are available over the Internet; an example is shown in Figure 1, and it is possible to design the schedule independently.

Figure 1:

A time planning template.

7.1 How to identify students with difficulties in self-regulation

During the day-long training workshop, the teachers were introduced to SRL theory. They were asked to complete the “test yourself” SRL questionnaire through their own eyes when they were university students, as well as during their various professional development courses. They were then asked three open questions: (1) How can one identify students’ difficulties in the context of learning online? How can students’ current levels of self-regulation be identified? How can students be supported? This section presents examples of the answers given by 16 teachers who participated in the workshop, recorded by those teachers on a collaborative bulletin board (Padlet). The teachers’ responses were analyzed according to the six dimensions of self-regulation discussed above. Five of the six dimensions were mentioned in the teachers’ answers (only the self-evaluation dimension was not mentioned). The “help-seeking” dimension became “offering help” since the teachers suggested that they should offer help to students they identify as having difficulties. The teachers’ answers were analyzed using a “top-down” approach; first, they located themes that corresponded to the dimensions of self-regulation within the answers. Then, they carried out an inductive analysis in which themes emerged from the teachers’ answers – a “bottom-up” approach (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

Examples of the teachers’ answers are presented in Table 1. In addition to these answers, the teachers also mentioned that a general communication channel should be developed with the students for group and individual messages (e.g., the WhatsApp smartphone app). Another theme that emerged from the teachers’ answers and did not appear in the table is the principle of taking responsibility – also an SRL principle (Feldman-Maggor et al., 2022). One teacher described it as follows: “Remote learning requires the students to have greater self-discipline and to take more responsibility for their learning.” Other teachers referred to students who take responsibility, giving examples of how they manage their time and take personal responsibility for their learning, such as taking notes.

7.2 Teachers’ SRT

During the workshop, teachers were exposed to different learning skills that can be provided to their students when teaching chemistry in order to improve their students’ SRL abilities. Questions that were raised included, for example, how they can provide students with a scaffold, such as a table or concept map, to answer questions. In the second workshop assignment, they chose learning skills and gave an example of using the method in their chemistry teaching. Eight out of 16 teachers showed how a table could serve as a means to organize data for problem-solving. This is especially relevant for the topics of stoichiometry and intermolecular force since students compare the boiling and melting points of two molecules. Although this is a common learning strategy in chemistry, its uniqueness lies in relating the strategy to students’ SRL. Two out of 16 teachers presented a concept map to summarize their chemistry lessons. Six teachers analyzed the structure of a video or textbook to explain to students the logic behind it. For example, they focused on different aspects of the book or distinguished between content and exercises.