Home Seaweed resources of Tanzania: status, potential species, challenges and development potentials
Article
Licensed
Unlicensed Requires Authentication

Seaweed resources of Tanzania: status, potential species, challenges and development potentials

  • Flower E. Msuya

    Dr. Flower E. Msuya is a world-known researcher who specialises in aquaculture especially of seaweeds. Over the years she has researched on seaweed cultivation, socioeconomic impacts, effects of climate change, integrated farming of seaweed in IMTA, and innovation and value addition. Dr. Msuya is the founder and chairperson of the Zanzibar Seaweed Cluster Initiative (ZaSCI) in which she works with stakeholders especially farmers, small-scale processors and exporters to innovate in the areas of farming and value addition technologies. She has done over 20 consultancies, and trained many stakeholders in seaweed aspects. Dr. Msuya has published more than 50 papers.

    EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: June 29, 2020

Abstract

Tanzania is endowed with a rich biodiversity of seaweed species that grow naturally in its oligotrophic waters of the Western Indian Ocean. Most of these species are unexploited. Only two red seaweeds Eucheuma and Kappaphycus have been studied for commercial farming and the industrial production is based on these species. Another genus of red seaweed, Gracilaria, has been studied and experimented upon for potential farming while others such as the green Ulva, the red Hypnea and the brown Sargassum have been mentioned as potential species for farming. Farming technology used to cultivate the two commercial species is the shallow water off-bottom technology which is badly affected by the increase in surface seawater temperatures (climate change), causing massive die-backs and decreased seaweed production. Some deeper-water farming technologies have been developed but only tubular nets show promise and have been piloted. A number of opportunities exist in seaweed farming, which can be used to advance the industry. The future of the seaweed industry in Tanzania will depend on using the existing opportunities, including utilising the seaweed species already studied, exploring the potential of other seaweed species for farming, development of deeper-water farming technologies, added-value, and ensuring availability of good quality seed material.


Corresponding author: Flower E. Msuya, Zanzibar Seaweed Cluster Initiative, P.O. Box 3794, Zanzibar, Tanzania,
Article note: This article is part of the special issue series of Botanica Marina: Seaweed resources of the world: a 2020 vision, which has started publication in Botanica Marina 2019, vol. 62, issue 3. The series is guest-edited by Alan T. Critchley, Anicia Hurtado, Leonel Pereira, Melania Cornish, Danilo Largo and Nicholas Paul.

About the author

Flower E. Msuya

Dr. Flower E. Msuya is a world-known researcher who specialises in aquaculture especially of seaweeds. Over the years she has researched on seaweed cultivation, socioeconomic impacts, effects of climate change, integrated farming of seaweed in IMTA, and innovation and value addition. Dr. Msuya is the founder and chairperson of the Zanzibar Seaweed Cluster Initiative (ZaSCI) in which she works with stakeholders especially farmers, small-scale processors and exporters to innovate in the areas of farming and value addition technologies. She has done over 20 consultancies, and trained many stakeholders in seaweed aspects. Dr. Msuya has published more than 50 papers.

  1. Acknowledgements: The author would like to thank Mr. Mohammed Sudi of the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources, Livestock and Fisheries in Zanzibar and Ms Ritha Maly of the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources, Livestock and Fisheries on Tanzania mainland for providing recent seaweed production data.

  2. Author contribution: The author has accepted responsibility for the entire content of this submitted manuscript and approved submission.

  3. Research funding: None declared.

  4. Employment or leadership: None declared.

  5. Honorarium: None declared.

  6. Conflict of interest statement: The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding this article.

References

Albert, S., O’Neil, J.M., Udy, J.W., Ahern, K.S., O’Sullivan, C.M., and Dennison, W.C. (2005). Blooms of the cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula in coastal Queensland, Australia: disparate sites, common factors. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 51: 428–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.10.016.Search in Google Scholar

Anderson, R.J., Boothroyd, C.J.T., Kemp, F.A., and Rothman, M. (2001). Open-water cultivation of Gracilaria in South Africa: Saldanha Bay or st Helena Bay? In: Chapman, A.R.O., Anderson, R.J., Vreeland, V.J., and Davison, I.R. (Eds.) Proceedings of the 17th international seaweed symposium, Cape Town, South Africa, pp. 35–40.Search in Google Scholar

Ateweberhan, M., Rougier, A., and Rakotomahazo, C. (2015). Influence of environmental factors and farming technique on growth and health of farmed Kappaphycus alvarezii (cottonii) in south-west Madagascar. J. Appl. Phycol. 27: 923–934. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-014-0378-3.Search in Google Scholar

Araújo, P.G., Miranda, G.E.C., Barros-Barreto, M.B., and Fujii, M.T. (2013). Molecular identification of the exotic lineage of Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta, Solieriaceae) cultivated in the tropical region of Brazil. Phytotaxa 109: 17–26. https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.109.1.2.Search in Google Scholar

Barrington, K.T.C. and Robinson, S. (2009). Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) in marine temperate waters. In: Soto, D. (Ed.) Integrated mariculture: a global review. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 529, Rome, FAO, pp. 7–46.Search in Google Scholar

Beltran-Gutierrez, M., Ferse, S.C.A., Kunzmann, A., Stead, S., Msuya, F., Hoffmeister, T., and Slater, M. (2014). Co-culture of sea cucumber Holothuria scabra and red seaweed Kappaphycus striatum. Aquac. Res. 47: 1549–1559. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.12615.Search in Google Scholar

Bezerra, A.F. and Marinho-Soriano, E. (2010). Cultivation of the red seaweed Gracilaria birdiae (Gracilariales, Rhodophyta) in tropical waters of northeast Brazil. Biomass Bioenergy 34: 1813–1817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2010.07.016.Search in Google Scholar

Brugere, C., Msuya, F.E., Jiddawi, N., Nyonje, B., and Maly, R. (2020). Can innovation empower? Reflections on the introduction of tubular nets to women seaweed farmers in Zanzibar. Gender Technol. Dev. 24: 89–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718524.2019.16953.Search in Google Scholar

Buriyo, A.S. and Kivaisi, A.K. (2003). Standing stock, agar yield and properties of Gracilaria salicornia harvested along the Tanzanian Coast. West. Indian Ocean J. Mar. Sci. 2: 171–178. https://doi.org/10.4314/wiojms.v2i2.28433.Search in Google Scholar

Cai, J., Hishamunda, N., and Ridler, N. (2013). Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming: a global synthesis. In: Valderrama, D., Cai, J., Hishamunda, N., and Ridler, N. (Eds.), Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming, pp. 5–59. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 580. FAO, Rome 204 pp.Search in Google Scholar

Chopin, T. (2013). Aquaculture, integrated multi-trophic (IMTA). In: Meyers, R.A. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of sustainability science and technology. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/SpringerReference_226358.Search in Google Scholar

Chopin, T., Buschmann, A.H., Halling, C., Troell, M., Kautsky, N., Neori, A., Kraemer, G.P., Zertuche-González, J.A., Yarish, C., and Neefus, C. (2001). Integrating seaweeds into marine aquaculture systems: a key toward sustainability. J. Phycol. 37: 975–986. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1529-8817.2001.01137.x.Search in Google Scholar

Coppejans, E., Leliaert, F., and de Clerck, O. (1999). Annotated list of new records of marine macroalgae for Kenya and Tanzania, since Isaac’s and Jaasund’s publications. BioI. Jaarb. Dodonaea 67: 31–93.Search in Google Scholar

Critchley, A.T., Largo, D., Wee, W., Bleicher Lhonneur, G., Hurtado, A.Q., and Schubert, J. (2004). A preliminary summary on Kappaphycus farming and the impacts of epiphytes. Jpn. J. Phycol. 52: 231–232.Search in Google Scholar

Dawes, C.P. (1992). Rope cultivation of Gracilaria in Namibia: Prospects? In: Mshigeni, K.E., Bolton, J., Critchley, A., and Kiangi, G. (Eds.), Proc. Int. Workshop on Sustainable Seaweed Res. Dev., Windhoek, Namibia, pp. 99–109.Search in Google Scholar

Dawes, C.P. (1995). Suspended cultivation of Gracilaria in the sea. J. Appl. Phycol. 7: 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00004004.Search in Google Scholar

de Castro, T.R. and Guanzon, N.G. (1993). Growth of Gracilaria sp. (Gracilariales, Rhodophyta) in brackish water ponds at different stocking densities. Isr. J. Aquacult.-Bamid. 45: 89–94.Search in Google Scholar

Dumilag, R.V., Orosco, F.L., and Lluisma, A.O. (2016). Genetic diversity of Kappaphycus species (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) in the Philippines. Systemat. Biodivers. 14: 441–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/14772000.2016.1157643.Search in Google Scholar

Eklöf, J.S., Msuya, F.E., Lyimo, T.J., and Buriyo, A.S. (2012). Seaweed Farming in Chwaka Bay: a sustainable alternative in aquaculture? In: de la Torre-Castro, M. and Lyimo, T.J. (Eds.), People, nature and research in Chwaka Bay, Zanzibar, Tanzania. ISBN: 978-9987-9559-1-6. WIOMSA, Zanzibar Town, pp. 213–233.Search in Google Scholar

EPA. (2013). United Stares Environmental Protection Agency. Impacts of Climate Change on the Occurrence of Harmful Algal Blooms. EPA 820-S-13-001, MC 4304T, USA.Search in Google Scholar

Góes, H.G. and Reis, R.P. (2011). An initial comparison of tubular netting versus tie–tie methods of cultivation for Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta, Solieriaceae) on the south coast of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. J. Appl. Phycol. 23: 607–613. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-010-9647-y.Search in Google Scholar

Góes, H.G. and Reis, R.P. (2012). Temporal variation of the growth, carrageenan yield and quality of Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales) cultivated at Sepetiba bay, south eastern Brazilian coast. J. Appl. Phycol. 24: 173–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-011-9665-4.Search in Google Scholar

Gubelit, Y.I. and Berezina, N.A. (2010). The causes and consequences of algal blooms: the Cladophora glomerata bloom and the Neva estuary (eastern Baltic Sea). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 61: 183–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.02.013.Search in Google Scholar

Hayashi, L., Hurtado, A.Q., Msuya, F.E., Bleicher-Lhonneur, G., and Critchley, A.T. (2010). A review of Kappaphycus farming: prospects and constraints. In: Israel, A., Einav, R., and Seckbach, J. (Eds.), Seaweeds and their role in globally changing environments, cellular origin, life in extreme habitats and astrobiology 15. ISBN 978-90-481-8568-9, Springer Science, London, pp. 251–283.10.1007/978-90-481-8569-6_15Search in Google Scholar

Hayashi, L., Bulboa, C., Kradolfer, P., Soriano, G., and Robledo, D. (2014). Cultivation of red seaweeds: a Latin American perspective. J. Appl. Phycol. 26: 719–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-013-0143-z.Search in Google Scholar

Hayashi, L., Reis, R.P., dos Santos, A.A., Castelar, B., Robledo, D., de Vega, G.B., Msuya, F.E., Eswaran, K., Yasir, S.M., Ali, M.K.M., and Hurtado, A.Q. (2017). The cultivation of Kappaphycus and Eucheuma in tropical and sub-tropical waters. In: Hurtado, A., Critchley, A., and Neish, I. (Eds.), Tropical seaweed farming trends, problems and opportunities: focus on Kappaphycus and Eucheuma of commerce. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 55–90.10.1007/978-3-319-63498-2_4Search in Google Scholar

Hurtado, A.Q. (2013). Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming in the Philippines. In: Valderrama, D., Cai, J., Hishamunda, N., and Ridler, N. (Eds.), Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 580. Rome, FAO, pp. 91–113.Search in Google Scholar

Hurtado, A.Q. and Agbayani, R.F. (2002). Deep-sea farming of Kappaphycus using the multiple raft, long-line method. Bot. Mar. 45: 438–444. https://doi.org/10.1515/bot.2002.044.Search in Google Scholar

Hurtado, A.Q., Critchley, A.T., Trespoey, A., and Bleicher-Lhonneur, G. (2006). Occurrence of Polysiphonia epiphytes in Kappaphycus farms at Calaguas Is., Camarines Norte, Philippines. J. Appl. Phycol. 18: 301–306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-006-9032-z.Search in Google Scholar

Johnson, B. and Gopakumar, G. (2011). Farming of the seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii in Tamil Nadu coast status and constraints. Marine Fisheries Information Service T&E Ser., No. 208.Search in Google Scholar

Kassila, J., Nhhala, H., Givernaud, T., Mansouri, M., Yazami, O., Abrehouch, A., Mesfioui, A., and Idhalla, M. (2019). Opportunities for the development of seaweed farming as a supplementary income for small-scale fishermen in Nador lagoon: experimental cultivations of Gracilaria gracilis (Stackhouse). Med. Fish. Aquacult. Res. 2: 12–26.Search in Google Scholar

Kivaisi, A.K. and Buriyo, A.S. (2007). Assessment of native agar gels extracted from Gracilaria debilis and Gracilaria salicornia harvested along the tanzanian coast for culturing microorganisms. West. Indian Ocean J. Mar. Sci. 6: 219–223.10.4314/wiojms.v6i2.48246Search in Google Scholar

Kunzmann, A., Beltran-Gutierrez, M., Fabiani, G., Namukose, M., and Msuya, F.E. (2018). Integrated seaweed – sea cucumber farming in Tanzania. West. Indian Ocean J. Mar. Sci. 17: 35–50. https://doi.org/10.4314/wiojms.v17i2.4.Search in Google Scholar

Largo, D.B., Fukami, K., and Nishijima, T. (1995). Occasional pathogenic bacteria promoting ice-ice disease in the carrageenan-producing red algae Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum (Solieriaceae, Gigartinales, Rhodophyta). J. Appl. Phycol. 7: 545–554. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00003941.Search in Google Scholar

Largo, D.B., Chung, I.K., Phang, S.M., Gerung, G.S., and Sondak, C.F.A. (2017). Impacts of climate change on Eucheuma–Kappaphycus farming. In: Hurtado, A.Q. and Critchley, A.T. (Eds.), Tropical seaweed farming trends, problems and opportunities, developments in applied phycology. Springer International Publishing AG, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 121–129.10.1007/978-3-319-63498-2_7Search in Google Scholar

Largo, D.B., Msuya, F.E., Menezes, A. (2020). Understanding the diseases and die-off of seaweeds in Zanzibar. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 662, FAO, Rome, 56 pp.Search in Google Scholar

Lim, P.E., Tan, J., Phang, S.M., Nikmatullah, A., Hong, D.D., Sunarpi, H., and Hurtado, A.Q. (2014). Genetic diversity of Kappaphycus Doty and Eucheuma J. Agardh (Solieriaceae, Rhodophyta) in Southeast Asia. J. Appl. Phycol. 26: 1253–1272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-013-0197-y.Search in Google Scholar

Lirasan, T. and Twide, P. (1993). Farming Eucheuma in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Hydrobiologia 260/261: 353–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1998-6_44.Search in Google Scholar

Liu, D., Keesing, J.K., Xing, Q., and Shi, P. (2009). World’s largest macroalgal bloom caused by expansion of seaweed aquaculture in China. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 58: 888–895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.01.013.Search in Google Scholar

Loureiro, R.R., Hurtado, A.Q., and Critchley, A.T. (2017). Impacts of AMPEP on epiphytes and diseases in Kappaphycus and Eucheuma cultivation. In: Hurtado, A., Critchley, A., and Neish, I. (Eds.), Tropical seaweed farming trends, problems and opportunities: focus on Kappaphycus and Eucheuma of commerce. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 111–119.10.1007/978-3-319-63498-2_6Search in Google Scholar

Mshigeni, K.E. (1970). Seaweed resources of Tanzania. Botany Dept., Univ. of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 54 pp. Mimeo.Search in Google Scholar

Mshigeni, K.E. (1973). Exploitation of seaweeds in Tanzania. The genus Eucheuma and other algae. Tanzania Notes Rec. 72: 19–36.Search in Google Scholar

Mshigeni, K.E. (1976). Seaweed farming: a possibility for Tanzania’s Coastal Ujamaa villages. Tanzania Notes Rec. 79/80: 99–105.Search in Google Scholar

Mshigeni, K.E. (1983). Algal resources, exploitation and use in East Africa. In: Chapman, D.J. and Round, F.E. (Eds.), Progress in phycological research. Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press B.V., Amsterdam, pp. 387–419.Search in Google Scholar

Mshigeni, K.E. (1984). The red algal genus Eucheuma (Gigartinales, Solieriaceae) in East Africa: an underexploited resource. Hydrobiologia 116–117: 347–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00027700.Search in Google Scholar

Mshigeni, K.E. and Chapman, D.J. (1994). Hypnea (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta). In: Akatsuka, I. (Ed.), Biology of economic algae. SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague, pp. 245–281.Search in Google Scholar

Mshigeni, K.E., and Jahn, R. (1995). Eucheuma (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales) in the W. Indian Ocean region – notes on collections kept in Berlin-Dahlem and Hamburg. Willdenowia 25: 399–407.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E. (2006a). Seaweed farming as a potential cluster. In: Mwamila, B.L.M. and Temu, A.K. (Eds.), Proceedings of the innovation systems and clusters programme in Tanzania (ISCP-Tz): cluster initiative launching workshop. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, pp. 102–113.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E. (2006b). The seaweed cluster initiative in Zanzibar, Tanzania. In: Mwamila, B.L.M. and Temu, A.K. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd regional conference on innovation systems and innovative clusters in Africa. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, pp. 246–260.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E. (2007a). Combating Kappaphycus die-offs in Tanzania. Forum Phycol. 66: 2–4.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E. (2007b). The effect of stocking density on the performance of the seaweed Ulva reticulata as a biofilter in earthen pond channels, Zanzibar, Tanzania. The effect of stocking density on the performance of the seaweed Ulva reticulata as a Biofilter in Earthen Pond Channels, Zanzibar, Tanzania. West. Indian Ocean J. Mar. Sci. 6: 65–72. https://doi.org/10.4314/wiojms.v6i1.48227.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E. (2010a). Development of seaweed cultivation in Tanzania: the role of the University of Dar es Salaam and other institutions. Aquaculture Compendium. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E. (2010b). Innovation of the seaweed farming industry for community development: the case of the Zanzibar Islands, Tanzania. In: Mnembuka, B.V., Akil, J.M., Saleh, H.H., and Mohammed, M.S. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1st annual agricultural research review workshop, “agricultural research - a gateway towards the green revolution”, Zanzibar, Tanzania, pp. 59–74.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E. (2011a). The impact of seaweed farming on the socioeconomic status of coastal communities in Zanzibar, Tanzania. J. World Aquac. Soc. 42: 45–48.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E. (2011b). Environmental changes and their impact on seaweed farming in Tanzania. J. World Aquac. Soc. 42: 34–37, 71.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E. (2013). Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming in the United Republic of Tanzania. In: Valderrama, D., Cai, J., Hishamunda, N., and Ridler, N. (Eds.), Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 580. FAO, Rome. 204 pp., pp. 115–146.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E. and Hurtado, A.Q. (2017). The role of women in seaweed aquaculture in the Western Indian Ocean and South-East Asia. Eur. J. Phycol. 52: 482–494. https://doi.org/10.1080/09670262.2017.1357084.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E. and Porter, M. (2014). Impact of environmental changes on farmed seaweed and farmers: the case of Songosongo Island, Tanzania. J. Appl. Phycol. 26: 2135–2141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-014-0243-4.Search in Google Scholar

Msuya, F.E., Kyewalyanga, M.S., and Salum, D. (2006). The performance of the seaweed Ulva reticulata as a biofilter in a low-tech, gravity generated water flow regime: nutrient uptake rates and efficiencies. Aquaculture 254: 284–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.10.044.Search in Google Scholar

Mulyaningrum, S.R.H., Suwoyo, H.S., Paena, M., and Tampangallo, B.R. (2019). Epiphyte identification on Kappaphycus alvarezii seaweed farming area in Arungkeke Waters, Jeneponto and the effect on Carrageenan quality. Indones. J. Mar. Sci. 24: 146–152. https://doi.org/10.14710/ik.ijms.24.3.146-152.Search in Google Scholar

Namukose, M., Msuya, F.E., Ferse, S.C.A., Slater, M.J., and Kunzmann, A. (2016). Growth performance of the sea cucumber Holothuria scabra and the seaweed Eucheuma denticulatum: integrated mariculture and effects on sediment organic characteristics. Aquac. Env. Interact. 8: 179–189. https://doi.org/10.3354/aei00172.Search in Google Scholar

Neori, A., Shpigel, M., and Ben-Ezra, D. (2000). A sustainable integrated system for culture of fish, seaweed and abalone. Aquaculture 186: 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0044-8486(99)00378-6.Search in Google Scholar

Oliveira, E.C., Österlund, K., and Mtolera, M.S.P. (2005). Marine plants of Tanzania, a field guide to the seaweeds and seagrasses of Tanzania. Sida/SAREC, Sweden, 267 pp.Search in Google Scholar

Oliveira, V.P., Freire, F.A.M., and Soriano, E.M. (2012). Influence of depth on the growth of the seaweed Gracilaria birdiae (rhodophyta) in a shrimp pond. Braz. J. Aquat. Sci. Technol. 16: 33–39. https://doi.org/10.14210/bjast.v16n1.p33-39.Search in Google Scholar

Paul, V.J. (2008). Global warming and cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms. In: Hudnell, H.K. (Ed.), Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms: state of the science and research needs. Advances in experimental medicine and biology. Springer, New York, NY, pp. 239–257.10.1007/978-0-387-75865-7_11Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Pettersson-Löfquist, P. (1995). The development of open-water algae farming in Zanzibar: reflections on the socioeconomic impact. Ambio 24: 487–491.Search in Google Scholar

Radhika Rajasree, S.R. and Gayathri, S. (2014). Women enterprising in seaweed farming with special references fisherwomen widows in Kanyakumari District Tamilnadu India. J. Coast. Dev. 17: 1. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 1410-5217.1000383.Search in Google Scholar

Raikar, S.V., Lima, M., and Fujita, Y. (2001). Effect of temperature, salinity and light intensity on the growth of Gracilaria spp. (Gracilariales, Rhodophyta) from Japan, Malaysia and India. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 30: 98–104.Search in Google Scholar

Reis, R.P., Bastos, M., and Góes, H.G. (2007). Cultivo de Kappaphycus alvarezii no litoral do Rio de Janeiro. Panor Aqüic. 17: 42–47.Search in Google Scholar

Reis, R.P., Pereira, R.R., and Góes, H.G. (2015). The efficiency of tubular netting method of cultivation for Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales) on the south eastern Brazilian coast. J. Appl. Phycol. 27: 421–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-014-0330-6.Search in Google Scholar

Rincones, R.E. (1990). Experimental cultivation of an agarophyte alga, Gracilaria cornea in the NE Coast of Venezuela. In: Oliveira, E.C. and Kautsky, N. (Eds.), Proceedings of the workshop on cultivation of seaweeds in Latin America, pp. 65–67.Search in Google Scholar

Said, A.H., Morten, S., Ludvig, I.J., Msuya, F.E., Kyewalyanga, M.S., Ngowi, H.A., and Mmochi, A.J. (2018). Skin irritation and other algal bloom related health problems among seaweed farmers in coastal Tanzania. J. Public Health Epidemiol. 10: 303–312. https://doi.org/10.5897/JPHE2018.1020.Search in Google Scholar

Salles, J.P., Scherner, F., Yoshimura, C.Y., Fanganiello, M., Bouzon, Z.L., and Horta, P.A. (2010). Cultivation of native seaweed Gracilaria domingensis (rhodophyta) in Southern Brazil. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 53: 633–640. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1516-89132010000300018.Search in Google Scholar

Sen, S. (1991). Seaweed collection and culture in Tanzania. ALCOM Field Doc. FAO, Zimbabwe, 29 pp.Search in Google Scholar

Tan, J., Lim, P.E., Phang, S.M., Rahiman, A., Nikmatullah, A., Sunarpi, H., and Hurtado, A.Q. (2014). Kappaphycus malesianus sp. nov.: a new species of Kappaphycus (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) from Southeast Asia. J. Appl. Phycol. 26: 1273–1285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-013-0155-8.Search in Google Scholar

Tano, S.A., Halling, C., Lind, E., Buriyo, A., and Wikström, S.A. (2015). Extensive spread of farmed seaweeds causes a shift from native to non-native haplotypes in natural seaweed beds. Mar. Biol. 162: 10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-015-2724-7.Search in Google Scholar

Tsiresy, G., Preux, J., Lavitra, T., Dubois, P., Lepoint, G., and Eeckhaut, I. (2016). Phenology of farmed seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii infestation by the parasitic epiphyte Polysiphonia sp. in Madagascar. J. Appl. Phycol. 28: 2903–2914. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-016-0813-8.Search in Google Scholar

Vairappan, C.S. (2006). Seasonal occurrences of epiphytic algae on the commercially cultivated red alga Kappaphycus alvarezii (Solieriaceae, Gigartinales, Rhodophyta). J. Appl. Phycol. 18: 611−617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-006-9062-6.Search in Google Scholar

Vairappan, C.S., Chung, C.S., Hurtado, A.Q., Msuya, F.E., Bleicher-Lhonneur, G., and Critchley, A. (2008). Distribution and symptoms of epiphyte infection in major carrageenophyte-producing farms. J. Appl. Phycol. 20: 477–483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-007-9299-8.Search in Google Scholar

Valderrama, D., Cai, J., Hishamunda, N., Reidler, N., Neish, I.C., Hurtado, A.Q., Msuya, F.E., Krishnan, M., Narayanakumar, R., Kronen, M., et al. (2015). The economics of Kappaphycus seaweed cultivation in developing countries: a comparative analysis of farming systems. Aquac. Econ. Manag. 19: 251–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/13657305.2015.1024348.Search in Google Scholar

Zuccarello, G.C., Critchley, A.T., Smith, J., Sieber, V., Bleicher-Lhonneur, G., and West, J.A. (2006). Systematics and genetic variation in commercial Kappaphycus and Eucheuma (Solieriaceae, Rhodophyta). J. Appl. Phycol. 18: 643–651. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-006-9066-2.Search in Google Scholar

Received: 2019-08-08
Accepted: 2020-04-28
Published Online: 2020-06-29
Published in Print: 2020-08-27

© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Downloaded on 28.10.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/bot-2019-0056/html
Scroll to top button