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2.4.4.1 Regime for Risk Allocation in Indonesia

© 2024, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh

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© 2024, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh

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Chapters in this book

Frontmatter i
Contents v
Acknowledgments xii
Preface xiii
Foreword xv
Table of Cases xvii
Table of Instruments xxi
Abbreviations xxiii
Chapter 1 Risk Allocation in the Offshore Energy Industry: An Overview
1.0 General Introduction and Background 1
1.1 Understanding the Concepts of Risk and Risk Allocation 4
1.2 Risk and Related Concepts
1.2.1 Risk and Uncertainty 5
1.2.2 Risk and Probability 6
1.3 Risk Ca tegorisation 7
1.4 Scholastic Perspectives on Risk 10
1.5 Other Approaches to Risk
1.5.1 The Judicial Approach 12
1.5.2 The Legislative Approach 12
1.5.3 The Economic Approach 13
1.6 Essential Concepts in the Discussion about Risks
1.6.1 Risk Management 14
1.6.2 Risk Aversion 14
1.6.3 Risk Allocation 15
1.6.4 Risk Mitigation 16
1.6.5 Contractual Risk Allocation in the Oil Industry 16
1.7 Conceptual Understanding and Usage of Terms
1.7.1 Negligence and Gross Negligence 17
1.7.2 Human Rights and Environment 19
1.7.3 Sustainability 20
1.7.4 Distributive Justice 21
1.7.5 Freedom of Contract 22
1.7.6 Public Policy 23
1.8 Essential Terms in a Contract Matrix
1.8.1 Co-Venturers 23
1.8.2 Operator 25
1.8.3 Contractor 26
1.8.4 Subcontractor 27
1.9 Purpose and Objective of the Book 28
1.10 Me thodology and Structure of the Book 28
Chapter 2 The Context of Offshore Petroleum Drilling Operations and Risk Allocation
2.0 Introduction 31
2.1 O ffshore Petroleum Exploration 31
2.2 Drilling Contracts
2.2.1 Daywork/Day Rate Contract 35
2.2.2 Footage Contract 35
2.2.3 Turnkey Contract 36
2.3 Allocating Risks in the Oil and Gas Industry 36
2.4 Contractual Risk Allocation in Specific Jurisdictions
2.4.1 United Kingdom
2.4.1.1 United Kingdom Model Contracts 40
2.4.1.2 Analysis of the United Kingdom Mutual Indemnification Practice 44
2.4.2 United States of America
2.4.2.1 Model Contract for Risk Allocation in the United States 46
2.4.3 Nigeria
2.4.3.1 Standard Form Contracts for Drilling in Nigeria 53
2.4.3.2 Risk Allocation in Drilling Contracts in Nigeria 53
2.4.4 Indonesia
2.4.4.1 Regime for Risk Allocation in Indonesia 59
2.4.4.2 Risk Allocation in Indonesian Production Sharing Contract Forms 61
2.4.4.3 Risk Allocation in Operator and Contractor Private Drilling Contracts in Indonesia 62
2.5 Changing Perceptions of Risk Allocation 64
2.6 Risk Allocation Tools in Oil and Gas Contracts
2.6.1 Mutual Indemnity Agreements 66
2.6.2 Hold Harmless Clauses 68
2.6.3 Mutual Indemnity and Hold Harmless Provisions in Context 69
2.6.4 Exclusion and Limitation of Liability Clauses
2.6.4.1 Exclusion Clauses 70
2.6.4.2 Limitation of Liability Clauses 71
2.7 Rationales for Risk Allocation in Oil and Gas Contracts
2.7.1 Industry Practice Rationale 72
2.7.2 Doctrine of Tradition 72
2.7.3 Best Knowledge Doctrine 73
2.7.4 ‘Clay Feet’ Doctrine 73
2.7.5 Accountability Doctrine 74
2.7.6 Rationale Founded on Legal/Economic Considerations 74
2.7.7 The Party in the Best Position to Bear the Risk 74
2.7.8 Overall Efficiency Rationale 75
2.7.9 Economic Benefit Rationale 76
2.7.10 Foreseeability Rationale 76
2.7.11 Other Rationales 77
2.8 Regulatory Interventions in Risk Allocation
2.8.1 Anti-Indemnity Legislation 78
2.8.2 Indemnification in Texas
2.8.2.1 Texas Express Negligence Rule 79
2.8.2.2 Texas Anti-Indemnity Statute 80
2.8.3 Indemnification in Louisiana 81
2.8.4 Unfair Contracts Terms Act 1977 83
2.8.5 Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 85
2.9 Conclusion 86
Chapter 3 Conceptual Considerations in Risk Allocation in the Offshore Energy Industry
3.0 Introduction 87
3.1 Concept of Freedom of Contract 87
3.2 Limit of the Freedom of Contract
3.2.1 Commodification 90
3.2.2 Externalities 90
3.3 Public Policy and the Freedom of Contract in Risk Allocation
3.3.1 What Is Public Policy? 91
3.3.2 Public Policy – An Unruly Horse? 95
3.3.3 Public Policy and the Exercise of the Freedom of Contract 97
3.3.4 Public Policy and Risk Allocation behind the Veil of Ignorance
3.3.4.1 Conceptual Understanding of the Veil of Ignorance 100
3.3.4.2 Hypothetical Risk Allocation behind the Veil of Ignorance in the Hydrocarbon Industry 102
3.3.4.3 Assessing the Veil of Ignorance in Gross Negligence Cases 103
3.4 Sustainability Dimensions in Risk Allocation
3.4.1 Concept of Sustainability 105
3.4.2 Aspects of Sustainability
3.4.2.1 Environmental Aspect 107
3.4.2.2 Social Aspect 109
3.4.2.3 Economic Aspect 109
3.4.3 Sustainability Risks 110
3.4.4 Why Is Sustainability Essential to the Offshore Petroleum Industry?
3.4.4.1 Reputation Risk Management 111
3.4.4.2 A Way of Securing the Social Licence to Operate 113
3.4.4.3 A Strategy to Maximise Environmental and Social Performance 114
3.4.5 Sustainability in Risk Allocation in the Oil and Gas Industry 115
3.5 Distributive Justice in Risk Allocation
3.5.1 What Is Justice? 116
3.5.2 Distinctions in Justice
3.5.2.1 Conservative versus Reformative Justice 118
3.5.2.2 Substantive versus Procedural Justice 120
3.5.2.3 Comparative versus Non-Comparative Justice 121
3.5.2.4 Corrective versus Distributive Justice 122
3.5.3 Types of Justice
3.5.3.1 Distributive Justice 123
3.5.3.2 Procedural Justice 124
3.5.3.3 Retributive Justice 125
3.5.3.4 Restorative Justice 126
3.6 Distributive Justice: Concept, Dimensions and Essence
3.6.1 Context 127
3.6.2 Rawls’s Distributive Justice Perspective 128
3.6.3 Nozick’s Distributive Justice Perspective 129
3.6.4 Keating’s Distributive Justice Perspective 131
3.6.5 Theoretical Elements of Keating’s Distributive Justice
3.6.5.1 Fairness 134
3.6.5.2 Proportionality 136
3.6.5.3 Mutual Benefit 138
3.6.6 Why Is Distributive Justice Essential in Risk Allocation? 139
3.7 Distributive Justice and Private Law
3.7.1 Contract Law and Tort as Vehicles of Distribution 141
3.8 Distributive Justice: A Practical Element in Allocating the Risk of Gross Negligence 146
3.9 Conclusion 146
Chapter 4 Causation and Gross Negligence in Risk Allocation
4.0 Introduction 148
4.1 Causation and Liability
4.1.1 Causation: Meaning and Legal Foundation 148
4.1.2 Causation and Liability for Grossly Negligent Conduct 150
4.2 Gross Negligence: Context and Dimensions
4.2.1 Gross Negligence – A sui generis Liability? 151
4.2.2 A Historical Perspective on Gross Negligence 151
4.2.3 Varying the Standard of Care in Negligence 153
4.2.4 Contextualising the Meaning of Gross Negligence
4.2.4.1 Regime of Gross Negligence in the United States 155
4.2.4.2 Regime of Gross Negligence in the United Kingdom 158
4.2.4.3 Gross Negligence: Perspective of the United Kingdom Courts 159
4.3 Wilful Misconduct 161
4.4 Challenges Associated with Managi ng and Allocating Gross Negligence Risk
4.4.1 Challenge of Defining Gross Negligence 162
4.4.2 Varied Standards of Proof for Gross Negligence Cases 164
4.4.3 Limited Application of Gross Negligence: Not a Term of Art 165
4.4.4 Limited Statutory Provision for Gross Negligence in Petroleum Regulations 168
4.4.5 Limited Insurance Coverage 168
4.5 A Working Definition of Gross Negligence in Offshore Drilling Contracts 169
4.6 Gross Negligence: Examining the Test for Corporate Responsibility in Offshore Drilling Operations 172
4.7 Conclusion 175
Chapter 5 Guiding Principles for Effective Risk Allocation in Gross Negligence Cases
5.0 Introduction 176
5.1 Guiding Principles
5.1.1 Public Policy Principle 177
5.1.2 Human Rights Principle 178
5.1.3 Sustainability Principle 181
5.1.4 Distributive Justice Principle 182
5.2 An Ada ptable Framework for Risk Allocation in Gross Negligence Cases : Strategies for Mainstreaming Liability
5.2.1 Regulatory Strategy 183
5.2.2 Contractual Strategy
5.2.2.1 Liability Subject to the Proportion of Benefit 187
5.2.2.2 Indemnity 187
5.2.3 Implications of Rethinking the Contractual Strategy 188
5.3 Conclusion 191
Chapter 6 Practical and Institutional Frameworks and Insurance Coverage for Implementing Risk Allocation in Gross Negligence Cases
6.0 Introduction 192
6.1 Institutional Framework
6.1.1 Coordination 194
6.1.2 Training and Capacity Building 195
6.1.3 Institutional Interoperability 195
6.2 Insurance and Other Coverage Options in the Oil and Gas Industry
6.2.1 Insurance and Financial Coverage in the Oil and Gas Industry 197
6.2.2 Liability Protection Schemes for the Offshore Oil Industry
6.2.2.1 Offshore Pollution Liability Association Limited Scheme 198
6.2.2.2 Oil Insurance Limited 200
6.2.2.3 Oil Casualty Insurance Limited 201
6.2.2.4 Offshore Energy Insurance Cover 201
6.2.3 Types of Offshore Energy Insurance
6.2.3.1 Coverage for Damage to Offshore Facilities 202
6.2.3.2 Operator’s Extra Expense 203
6.2.3.3 Excess Liability Insurance 203
6.2.3.4 Loss of Production Income Insurance 204
6.2.3.5 Protection and Indemnity Insurance Coverage 204
6.3 Insurance Coverage and Gross Negligence 205
6.4 Aligning Insurance with the Public Policy and Distributive Justice Objectives 207
6.5 Applicable Insurance Practice in Gross Negligence Cases
6.5.1 An Additional Insured Provision in Insurance Policies 208
6.5.2 Status of an Additional Insured 210
6.6 Financial Assurance Mechanisms/Strategies to Cover Pollution Liability
6.6.1 Available Financial Assurance Tools
6.6.1.1 Pooling 213
6.6.1.2 Insurance 214
6.6.1.3 Self-Insurance 214
6.6.1.4 Capital Market 215
6.6.2 Are Financial Assurance Mechanisms Fulfilling Their Purpose? 216
6.6.3 Financial Assurance Tools and Gross Negligence Situations 219
6.7 Regulatory Reforms for Effective Allocation of Gross Negligence Risk 220
6.8 Conclusion 221
Chapter 7 A Summary for Stakeholders
7.0 Introduction 222
7.1 A Dynamic Approach to Risk Allocation in the Oil Industry 222
7.2 A Distributive Outcome
7.2.1 A Distributive Outcome through Capped Liability in Gross Negligence Cases 225
7.2.2 Policy and Regulatory Direction for a Distributive Outcome 226
7.3 A Strategy to Overcome the Limitations in Allocating Gross Negligence Risk
7.3.1 Statutory Control 230
7.3.2 Statutory Harmonisation 230
7.3.3 Judicial Decisions and Harmonisation 231
7.4 Conclusion 232
Bibliography 233
Index 259

Risk Allocation and Distributive Justice in the Energy Industry

This chapter is in the book Risk Allocation and Distributive Justice in the Energy Industry

https://doi.org/10.1515/9781399517720-044

Chapters in this book

Frontmatter i
Contents v
Acknowledgments xii
Preface xiii
Foreword xv
Table of Cases xvii
Table of Instruments xxi
Abbreviations xxiii
Chapter 1 Risk Allocation in the Offshore Energy Industry: An Overview
1.0 General Introduction and Background 1
1.1 Understanding the Concepts of Risk and Risk Allocation 4
1.2 Risk and Related Concepts
1.2.1 Risk and Uncertainty 5
1.2.2 Risk and Probability 6
1.3 Risk Ca tegorisation 7
1.4 Scholastic Perspectives on Risk 10
1.5 Other Approaches to Risk
1.5.1 The Judicial Approach 12
1.5.2 The Legislative Approach 12
1.5.3 The Economic Approach 13
1.6 Essential Concepts in the Discussion about Risks
1.6.1 Risk Management 14
1.6.2 Risk Aversion 14
1.6.3 Risk Allocation 15
1.6.4 Risk Mitigation 16
1.6.5 Contractual Risk Allocation in the Oil Industry 16
1.7 Conceptual Understanding and Usage of Terms
1.7.1 Negligence and Gross Negligence 17
1.7.2 Human Rights and Environment 19
1.7.3 Sustainability 20
1.7.4 Distributive Justice 21
1.7.5 Freedom of Contract 22
1.7.6 Public Policy 23
1.8 Essential Terms in a Contract Matrix
1.8.1 Co-Venturers 23
1.8.2 Operator 25
1.8.3 Contractor 26
1.8.4 Subcontractor 27
1.9 Purpose and Objective of the Book 28
1.10 Me thodology and Structure of the Book 28
Chapter 2 The Context of Offshore Petroleum Drilling Operations and Risk Allocation
2.0 Introduction 31
2.1 O ffshore Petroleum Exploration 31
2.2 Drilling Contracts
2.2.1 Daywork/Day Rate Contract 35
2.2.2 Footage Contract 35
2.2.3 Turnkey Contract 36
2.3 Allocating Risks in the Oil and Gas Industry 36
2.4 Contractual Risk Allocation in Specific Jurisdictions
2.4.1 United Kingdom
2.4.1.1 United Kingdom Model Contracts 40
2.4.1.2 Analysis of the United Kingdom Mutual Indemnification Practice 44
2.4.2 United States of America
2.4.2.1 Model Contract for Risk Allocation in the United States 46
2.4.3 Nigeria
2.4.3.1 Standard Form Contracts for Drilling in Nigeria 53
2.4.3.2 Risk Allocation in Drilling Contracts in Nigeria 53
2.4.4 Indonesia
2.4.4.1 Regime for Risk Allocation in Indonesia 59
2.4.4.2 Risk Allocation in Indonesian Production Sharing Contract Forms 61
2.4.4.3 Risk Allocation in Operator and Contractor Private Drilling Contracts in Indonesia 62
2.5 Changing Perceptions of Risk Allocation 64
2.6 Risk Allocation Tools in Oil and Gas Contracts
2.6.1 Mutual Indemnity Agreements 66
2.6.2 Hold Harmless Clauses 68
2.6.3 Mutual Indemnity and Hold Harmless Provisions in Context 69
2.6.4 Exclusion and Limitation of Liability Clauses
2.6.4.1 Exclusion Clauses 70
2.6.4.2 Limitation of Liability Clauses 71
2.7 Rationales for Risk Allocation in Oil and Gas Contracts
2.7.1 Industry Practice Rationale 72
2.7.2 Doctrine of Tradition 72
2.7.3 Best Knowledge Doctrine 73
2.7.4 ‘Clay Feet’ Doctrine 73
2.7.5 Accountability Doctrine 74
2.7.6 Rationale Founded on Legal/Economic Considerations 74
2.7.7 The Party in the Best Position to Bear the Risk 74
2.7.8 Overall Efficiency Rationale 75
2.7.9 Economic Benefit Rationale 76
2.7.10 Foreseeability Rationale 76
2.7.11 Other Rationales 77
2.8 Regulatory Interventions in Risk Allocation
2.8.1 Anti-Indemnity Legislation 78
2.8.2 Indemnification in Texas
2.8.2.1 Texas Express Negligence Rule 79
2.8.2.2 Texas Anti-Indemnity Statute 80
2.8.3 Indemnification in Louisiana 81
2.8.4 Unfair Contracts Terms Act 1977 83
2.8.5 Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 85
2.9 Conclusion 86
Chapter 3 Conceptual Considerations in Risk Allocation in the Offshore Energy Industry
3.0 Introduction 87
3.1 Concept of Freedom of Contract 87
3.2 Limit of the Freedom of Contract
3.2.1 Commodification 90
3.2.2 Externalities 90
3.3 Public Policy and the Freedom of Contract in Risk Allocation
3.3.1 What Is Public Policy? 91
3.3.2 Public Policy – An Unruly Horse? 95
3.3.3 Public Policy and the Exercise of the Freedom of Contract 97
3.3.4 Public Policy and Risk Allocation behind the Veil of Ignorance
3.3.4.1 Conceptual Understanding of the Veil of Ignorance 100
3.3.4.2 Hypothetical Risk Allocation behind the Veil of Ignorance in the Hydrocarbon Industry 102
3.3.4.3 Assessing the Veil of Ignorance in Gross Negligence Cases 103
3.4 Sustainability Dimensions in Risk Allocation
3.4.1 Concept of Sustainability 105
3.4.2 Aspects of Sustainability
3.4.2.1 Environmental Aspect 107
3.4.2.2 Social Aspect 109
3.4.2.3 Economic Aspect 109
3.4.3 Sustainability Risks 110
3.4.4 Why Is Sustainability Essential to the Offshore Petroleum Industry?
3.4.4.1 Reputation Risk Management 111
3.4.4.2 A Way of Securing the Social Licence to Operate 113
3.4.4.3 A Strategy to Maximise Environmental and Social Performance 114
3.4.5 Sustainability in Risk Allocation in the Oil and Gas Industry 115
3.5 Distributive Justice in Risk Allocation
3.5.1 What Is Justice? 116
3.5.2 Distinctions in Justice
3.5.2.1 Conservative versus Reformative Justice 118
3.5.2.2 Substantive versus Procedural Justice 120
3.5.2.3 Comparative versus Non-Comparative Justice 121
3.5.2.4 Corrective versus Distributive Justice 122
3.5.3 Types of Justice
3.5.3.1 Distributive Justice 123
3.5.3.2 Procedural Justice 124
3.5.3.3 Retributive Justice 125
3.5.3.4 Restorative Justice 126
3.6 Distributive Justice: Concept, Dimensions and Essence
3.6.1 Context 127
3.6.2 Rawls’s Distributive Justice Perspective 128
3.6.3 Nozick’s Distributive Justice Perspective 129
3.6.4 Keating’s Distributive Justice Perspective 131
3.6.5 Theoretical Elements of Keating’s Distributive Justice
3.6.5.1 Fairness 134
3.6.5.2 Proportionality 136
3.6.5.3 Mutual Benefit 138
3.6.6 Why Is Distributive Justice Essential in Risk Allocation? 139
3.7 Distributive Justice and Private Law
3.7.1 Contract Law and Tort as Vehicles of Distribution 141
3.8 Distributive Justice: A Practical Element in Allocating the Risk of Gross Negligence 146
3.9 Conclusion 146
Chapter 4 Causation and Gross Negligence in Risk Allocation
4.0 Introduction 148
4.1 Causation and Liability
4.1.1 Causation: Meaning and Legal Foundation 148
4.1.2 Causation and Liability for Grossly Negligent Conduct 150
4.2 Gross Negligence: Context and Dimensions
4.2.1 Gross Negligence – A sui generis Liability? 151
4.2.2 A Historical Perspective on Gross Negligence 151
4.2.3 Varying the Standard of Care in Negligence 153
4.2.4 Contextualising the Meaning of Gross Negligence
4.2.4.1 Regime of Gross Negligence in the United States 155
4.2.4.2 Regime of Gross Negligence in the United Kingdom 158
4.2.4.3 Gross Negligence: Perspective of the United Kingdom Courts 159
4.3 Wilful Misconduct 161
4.4 Challenges Associated with Managi ng and Allocating Gross Negligence Risk
4.4.1 Challenge of Defining Gross Negligence 162
4.4.2 Varied Standards of Proof for Gross Negligence Cases 164
4.4.3 Limited Application of Gross Negligence: Not a Term of Art 165
4.4.4 Limited Statutory Provision for Gross Negligence in Petroleum Regulations 168
4.4.5 Limited Insurance Coverage 168
4.5 A Working Definition of Gross Negligence in Offshore Drilling Contracts 169
4.6 Gross Negligence: Examining the Test for Corporate Responsibility in Offshore Drilling Operations 172
4.7 Conclusion 175
Chapter 5 Guiding Principles for Effective Risk Allocation in Gross Negligence Cases
5.0 Introduction 176
5.1 Guiding Principles
5.1.1 Public Policy Principle 177
5.1.2 Human Rights Principle 178
5.1.3 Sustainability Principle 181
5.1.4 Distributive Justice Principle 182
5.2 An Ada ptable Framework for Risk Allocation in Gross Negligence Cases : Strategies for Mainstreaming Liability
5.2.1 Regulatory Strategy 183
5.2.2 Contractual Strategy
5.2.2.1 Liability Subject to the Proportion of Benefit 187
5.2.2.2 Indemnity 187
5.2.3 Implications of Rethinking the Contractual Strategy 188
5.3 Conclusion 191
Chapter 6 Practical and Institutional Frameworks and Insurance Coverage for Implementing Risk Allocation in Gross Negligence Cases
6.0 Introduction 192
6.1 Institutional Framework
6.1.1 Coordination 194
6.1.2 Training and Capacity Building 195
6.1.3 Institutional Interoperability 195
6.2 Insurance and Other Coverage Options in the Oil and Gas Industry
6.2.1 Insurance and Financial Coverage in the Oil and Gas Industry 197
6.2.2 Liability Protection Schemes for the Offshore Oil Industry
6.2.2.1 Offshore Pollution Liability Association Limited Scheme 198
6.2.2.2 Oil Insurance Limited 200
6.2.2.3 Oil Casualty Insurance Limited 201
6.2.2.4 Offshore Energy Insurance Cover 201
6.2.3 Types of Offshore Energy Insurance
6.2.3.1 Coverage for Damage to Offshore Facilities 202
6.2.3.2 Operator’s Extra Expense 203
6.2.3.3 Excess Liability Insurance 203
6.2.3.4 Loss of Production Income Insurance 204
6.2.3.5 Protection and Indemnity Insurance Coverage 204
6.3 Insurance Coverage and Gross Negligence 205
6.4 Aligning Insurance with the Public Policy and Distributive Justice Objectives 207
6.5 Applicable Insurance Practice in Gross Negligence Cases
6.5.1 An Additional Insured Provision in Insurance Policies 208
6.5.2 Status of an Additional Insured 210
6.6 Financial Assurance Mechanisms/Strategies to Cover Pollution Liability
6.6.1 Available Financial Assurance Tools
6.6.1.1 Pooling 213
6.6.1.2 Insurance 214
6.6.1.3 Self-Insurance 214
6.6.1.4 Capital Market 215
6.6.2 Are Financial Assurance Mechanisms Fulfilling Their Purpose? 216
6.6.3 Financial Assurance Tools and Gross Negligence Situations 219
6.7 Regulatory Reforms for Effective Allocation of Gross Negligence Risk 220
6.8 Conclusion 221
Chapter 7 A Summary for Stakeholders
7.0 Introduction 222
7.1 A Dynamic Approach to Risk Allocation in the Oil Industry 222
7.2 A Distributive Outcome
7.2.1 A Distributive Outcome through Capped Liability in Gross Negligence Cases 225
7.2.2 Policy and Regulatory Direction for a Distributive Outcome 226
7.3 A Strategy to Overcome the Limitations in Allocating Gross Negligence Risk
7.3.1 Statutory Control 230
7.3.2 Statutory Harmonisation 230
7.3.3 Judicial Decisions and Harmonisation 231
7.4 Conclusion 232
Bibliography 233
Index 259

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